Application of quality by design concept to develop a dual gradient elution stability-indicating method for cloxacillin forced degradation studies using combined mixture-process variable models

Study on the impurity profiles of cloxacillin and flucloxacillin based on liquid chromatography tandem ion trap/time-of-flight mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Cloxacillin and flucloxacillin are prone to degradation and polymerization in humid and hot environments, and their polymers have long been recognized to trigger allergic manifestations. A series of the degradation and polymerized impurities in cloxacillin and flucloxacillin were separated and characterized to ensure safe use of these drugs by the public.

METHODS

By studying the chromatographic behavior of the degradation impurities and polymerized impurities in reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) gradient elution, the impurities in cloxacillin and flucloxacillin were effectively separated and eluted. RP-HPLC tandem ion trap/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MS) was applied to characterize the structures of unknown impurities eluted from the RP-HPLC methods for cloxacillin and flucloxacillin. The mechanisms of formation of the impurities in cloxacillin and flucloxacillin were also investigated.

RESULTS

The structures of 10 unknown impurities in cloxacillin and 8 unknown impurities in flucloxacillin were elucidated based on the high-resolution MSn data at positive and negative modes, respectively. Six polymerized impurities were found and characterized, of which three were from the polymerization of cloxacillin and three were from the polymerization of flucloxacillin.

CONCLUSIONS

The study on the impurity profiles of cloxacillin and flucloxacillin provided a scientific basis for improving their production processes and quality control.

Exquisite integration of quality-by-design and green analytical approaches for simultaneous determination of xylometazoline and antazoline in eye drops and rabbit aqueous humor, application to stability study

This work implements a stability indicating HPLC method developed to simultaneously determine xylometazoline (XYLO) and antazoline (ANT) in their binary mixture, rabbit aqueous humor and cited drug's degradates by applying analytical quality-by-design (AQbD) combined with green analytical chemistry (GAC) experiment for the first time. This integration was designed to maximize efficiency and minimize environmental impacts, as well as energy and solvent consumption. Analytical quality-by-design was applied to achieve our aim starting with evaluation of quality risk and scouting analysis, tracked via five parameters chromatographic screening using Placket-Burman design namely: pH, temperature, organic solvent percentage, flow rate, and wavelength detection. Recognizing the critical method parameters was done followed by optimization employing central composite design and Derringer's desirability toward assess optimum conditions that attained best resolution with satisfactory peak symmetry with short run time. Optimal chromatographic separation was attained by means of an XBridge® C18 (4.6 × 250 mm, 5 µm) column through isocratic elution using a mobile phase consists of phosphate buffer (pH 3.0): ethanol (60:40, by volume) at a 1.6 mL/min flow rate and 230.0 nm UV detection. Linearity acquired over a concentration range of 1.0-100.0 µg/mL and 0.5-100.0 µg/mL for XYLO and ANT, respectively. Furthermore, imperiling cited drugs' stock solutions to stress various conditions and satisfactory peaks of degradation products were obtained indicating that cited drugs are vulnerable to oxidative degradation and basic hydrolysis. Degradates' structures were elucidated using mass spectrometry. Applying various assessment tools; namely: analytical greenness (AGREE), green analytical procedure index (GAPI), analytical eco-scale, and national environmental method index (NEMI), Greenness method's evaluation was applied and proved to be green. In fact, the developed method is established to be perceptive, accurate, and selective to assess cited drugs for routine analysis.

Drilling into "Quality by Design" Approach for Analytical Methods

The need for consistency in analytical method development reinforces the dependence of pharmaceutical product development and manufacturing on robust analytical data. The Analytical Quality by Design (AQbD), akin to the product Quality by Design (QbD) endows a high degree of confidence to the method quality developed. AQbD involves the definition of the analytical target profile as starting point, followed by the identification of critical method variables and critical analytical attributes, supported on risk assessment and design of experiment tools for the establishment of a method operable design region and control strategy of the method. This systematic approach moves away from reactive troubleshooting to proactive failure reduction. The objective of this review is to highlight the elements of the AQbD framework and provide an overview of their implementation status in various analytical methods used in the pharmaceutical field. These methodologies include but are not limited to, high-performance liquid chromatography, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, capillary electrophoresis, supercritical fluid chromatography, and high-performance thin-layer chromatography. Finally, a critical appraisal is provided to highlight how regulators have encouraged AQbD principles application to boost the prevention of method failures and a better understanding of the method operable design region (MODR) and control strategy, ultimately resulting in cost-effectiveness and regulatory flexibility.

Analytical Purity Determinations of Universal Food-Spice Curcuma longa through a QbD Validated HPLC Approach with Critical Parametric Predictors and Operable-Design's Monte Carlo Simulations: Analysis of Extracts, Forced-Degradants, and Capsules and Tablets-Based Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms

Applications of analytical quality by design (QbD) approach for developing HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography) methods for food components assays, and separations of complex natural product mixtures, are still limited. The current study developed and validated, for the first time, a stability-indicating HPLC method for simultaneous determinations of curcuminoids in Curcuma longa extracts, tablets, capsules, and curcuminoids' forced degradants under different experimental conditions. Towards separation strategy, critical method parameters (CMPs) were defined as the mobile phase solvents' percent-ratio, the pH of the mobile phase, and the stationary-phase column temperature, while the peaks resolution, retention time, and the number of theoretical plates were recognized as the critical method attributes (CMAs). Factorial experimental designs were used for method development, validation, and robustness evaluation of the procedure. The Monte Carlo simulation evaluated the developing method's operability, and that ensured the concurrent detections of curcuminoids in natural extracts, commercial-grade pharmaceutical dosage-forms, and the forced degradants of the curcuminoids in a single mixture. The optimum separations were accomplished using the mobile phase, consisting of an acetonitrile-phosphate buffer (54:46 v/v, 0.1 mM) with 1.0 mL/min flow rate, 33 °C column temperature, and 385 nm wavelength for UV (Ultra Violet) spectral detections. The method is specific, linear (R2 ≥ 0.999), precise (% RSD < 1.67%), and accurate (% recovery 98.76-99.89%), with LOD (Limit of Detection) and LOQ (Limit of Quantitation) at 0.024 and 0.075 µg/mL for the curcumin, 0.0105 µg/mL and 0.319 µg/mL for demethoxycurcumin, and 0.335 µg/mL and 1.015 µg/mL for the bisdemethoxycurcumin, respectively. The method is compatible, robust, precise, reproducible, and accurately quantifies the composition of the analyte mixture. It exemplifies the use of the QbD approach in acquiring design details for developing an improved analytical detection and quantification method.

Developing an improved UHPLC method for impurity profile analysis of ceftriaxone using analytical quality by design

In this study, we developed a new reversed-phase ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) method for comprehensively measuring impurities in ceftriaxone. The method was developed based on the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP) HPLC method, which is limited by the lack of selectivity to potential impurities and a long running time. Screening experiments showed that octylamine concentration, mobile phase pH, and organic phase ratio were critical method parameters. Further optimisation and Monte-Carlo simulations were performed to map out the design space. The selected working conditions resulted in a complete separation of the impurity profile in approximately 10 min. A multivariate approach confirmed that the method was robust, and the proportion of acetonitrile should be carefully controlled. Additionally, the developed UHPLC method could be transferred back to HPLC in a single step using a Columns Calculator, providing a new approach for the rapid and effective development of the HPLC method. Our findings could serve as a reference for developing the next version of the ChP.

Analytical Method Development for 19 Alkyl Halides as Potential Genotoxic Impurities by Analytical Quality by Design

Major issues in the pharmaceutical industry involve efficient risk management and control strategies of potential genotoxic impurities (PGIs). As a result, the development of an appropriate method to control these impurities is required. An optimally sensitive and simultaneous analytical method using gas chromatography with a mass spectrometry detector (GC–MS) was developed for 19 alkyl halides determined to be PGIs. These 19 alkyl halides were selected from 144 alkyl halides through an in silico study utilizing quantitative structure–activity relationship (Q-SAR) approaches via expert knowledge rule-based software and statistical-based software. The analytical quality by design (QbD) approach was adopted for the development of a sensitive and robust analytical method for PGIs. A limited number of literature studies have reviewed the analytical QbD approach in the PGI method development using GC–MS as the analytical instrument. A GC equipped with a single quadrupole mass spectrometry detector (MSD) and VF-624 ms capillary column was used. The developed method was validated in terms of specificity, the limit of detection, quantitation, linearity, accuracy, and precision, according to the ICH Q2 guideline.

Quality-by-design in pharmaceutical development: From current perspectives to practical applications

Current pharmaceutical research directions tend to follow a systematic approach in the field of applied research and development. The concept of quality-by-design (QbD) has been the focus of the current progress of pharmaceutical sciences. It is based on, but not limited, to risk assessment, design of experiments and other computational methods and process analytical technology. These tools offer a well-organized methodology, both to identify and analyse the hazards that should be handled as critical, and are therefore applicable in the control strategy. Once implemented, the QbD approach will augment the comprehension of experts concerning the developed analytical technique or manufacturing process. The main activities are oriented towards the identification of the quality target product profiles, along with the critical quality attributes, the risk management of these and their analysis through in silico aided methods. This review aims to offer an overview of the current standpoints and general applications of QbD methods in pharmaceutical development.

Stability-indicating method development for quantification of bromopride, its impurities, and degradation products by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography applying Analytical Quality by Design principles

A comprehensive forced degradation study for bromopride was carried out in accordance with International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) recommendations followed by the identification and prospecting of the major degradation products. The analytical quality by design (AQbD) concepts were used to develop a stability-indicating method for bromopride and five organic impurities quantitation by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with UV detection (UHPLC-UV). Two screenings and one optimization design were performed, including a Monte Carlo simulation to assess the Method Operable Design Region (MODR). The AQbD approach provided a high degree of method understanding in a very short period of time, less than two weeks, and the validated MODR provided information on robust analytical conditions contributing to the assignment of suitable control strategies.

Expediting Disulfiram Assays through a Systematic Analytical Quality by Design Approach

An Analytical Quality by Design (AQbD) approach is presented, aiming at the development and validation of an HPLC method for the quantification of disulfiram and copper diethyldithiocarbamate in lipid nanoparticles. Following the definition of the analytical target profile (ATP), encompassing the critical analytical attributes (CAA), a two-level risk assessment strategy (Ishikawa diagram—failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA)) was employed to identify the critical method parameters (CMPs) with an extensive impact on method performance. The behavior of the CMPs (flow rate and mobile phase composition) was further characterized by experimental design, resorting to a face-centered central composite design (FcCCD). Statistical modeling, response surface analysis, and Monte Carlo simulations led to the definition of the Method Operable Design Region (MODR), associated with a negligible risk of failing the predefined CAA specifications. The optimal method was validated according to international regulatory recommendations. Apart from guaranteeing linearity, accuracy, precision, specificity, robustness, and stability, these conditions were found to be suitable for analysis using a different HPLC column and equipment. In a nutshell, the development and optimization strategies, under the comprehensive framework of AQbD, provided an effective, simple, rapid, reliable, and flexible method for routine analysis of the compounds in research or industrial environments.

Reversed-phase pH gradient thin-layer chromatography of biologically active substances with controlled developing solvent velocity

For the first time, stepwise pH gradient thin-layer chromatograms of biologically active substances with controlled developing solvent velocity are presented and described in the paper. Change in buffer pH of the mobile phase solution influences retardation, selectivity, and shape of the separated substances' spots. The conducted research has confirmed that the mobile phase's pH gradient could be an essential factor to optimize the conditions of the separation of substances in reversed-phase high-performance thin-layer chromatography. The reproducibility of the gradient retardation factor values of separated substance zones is satisfactory.

Analytical Method Lifecycle Management in Pharmaceutical Industry: a Review

The adoption of Quality by Design (QbD) and Analytical Method Lifecycle Management (AMLM) concepts to ensure the quality of pharmaceutical products has been applied and proposed over the last few years. These concepts are based on knowledge gained from the application of scientific and quality risk management approaches, throughout method lifecycle to assure continuous improvement and high reliability of analytical results. The overall AMLM starts with the definition of the method's intended use through the Analytical Target Profile definition, including three stages: (1) Method Design, taking advantage of the well-known concept of QbD; (2) Method Performance Qualification; (3) Continued Method Performance Verification. This is intended to holistically align method variability with product requirements, increasing confidence in the data generated, a regulatory requirement that the pharmaceutical industry must follow. This approach views all method-related activities, such as development, validation, transfer, and routine use as a continuum and interrelated process, where knowledge and risk management are the key enablers. An increase in method robustness, cost reduction, and decreased risk failures are some of the intrinsic benefits from this lifecycle management. This approach is clearly acknowledged both by regulators and industry. The roadmap of the regulatory and industry events that mark the evolution of these concepts helps to capture the current and future expectation of the pharmaceutical framework.

Experimental design in HPLC separation of pharmaceuticals

Design of Experiments (DoE) is an indispensable tool in contemporary drug analysis as it simultaneously balances a number of chromatographic parameters to ensure optimal separation in High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). This manuscript briefly outlines the theoretical background of the DOE and provides step-by-step instruction for its implementation in HPLC pharmaceutical practice. It particularly discusses the classification of various design types and their possibilities to rationalize the different stages of HPLC method development workflow, such as the selection of the most influential factors, factors optimization and assessment of the method robustness. Additionally, the application of the DOE-based Analytical Quality by Design (AQbD) concept in the LC method development has been summarized. Recent achievements in the use of DOE in the development of stability-indicating LC and hyphenated LC-MS methods have also been briefly reported. Performing of Quantitative structure retention relationship (QSRR) study enhanced with DOE-based data collection was recomended as a future perspective in description of retention in HPLC system.

Developing an Improved UHPLC Method for Efficient Determination of European Pharmacopeia Process-Related Impurities in Ropinirole Hydrochloride Using Analytical Quality by Design Principles

This article presents the development of a reversed-phase ultra-high-performance liquid chromatographic method for determining process-related impurities in ropinirole hydrochloride drug substance applying the analytical quality by design approach. The current pharmacopeial method suffers from selectivity issues due to two coelutions of two pairs of impurities. The development of a new method began with preliminary experiments, based on which the Acquity UPLC BEH C8 was selected as the most appropriate column. The effects of six different critical method parameters (CMPs) were then investigated using a fractional factorial screening design. Column temperature, the ratio of methanol in mobile phase B, and gradient slope turned out to be highly significant CMPs in achieving critical resolutions, and they were further evaluated using a central composite face-centered response-surface design. Mathematical models were created by applying a multiple linear regression method. Based on the elution order of an unknown degradation impurity and impurity C, two design spaces were established, and for each design space an optimal combination of CMPs was determined. The method developed was validated for precision, accuracy, linearity, and sensitivity, and it was proven suitable for determining nine process-related impurities of ropinirole.

Development of a Unified Reversed-Phase HPLC Method for Efficient Determination of EP and USP Process-Related Impurities in Celecoxib Using Analytical Quality by Design Principles

This article presents the development of a reversed-phase (RP) high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method for determination of process-related impurities in a celecoxib drug substance following Analytical Quality by Design (AQbD) principles. The method from European Pharmacopeia (EP) for celecoxib drug substance does not sufficiently separate celecoxib from its EP impurity B because the system suitability criterion is not achieved (resolution NLT 1.8). The same issue was observed with the proposed method from United States Pharmacopeia (USP) for celecoxib capsules, where EP impurity A elutes under the main peak. A new HPLC method was developed that eliminates the disadvantages of the two pharmacopeial methods and is capable of efficiently separating and determining all seven impurities listed in EP and the proposed USP monographs. The development of a new HPLC method started with method scouting, in which various C18 and phenyl stationary phases were tested. Improved selectivity was obtained only with a chiral stationary phase. An immobilized Chiralpak IA-3 column used in RP mode turned out to be the most appropriate for method optimization. The ratio of acetonitrile in the mobile phase, flow rate, and column temperature were recognized as critical method parameters (CMPs) and were further investigated using a central composite face response-surface design. A multiple linear regression (MLR) method was applied to fit the mathematical models on the experimental data to determine factor-response relationships. The models created show adequate fit and good prediction abilities. The Monte Carlo simulation method was used to establish the design space. The method developed was verified in terms of precision, sensitivity, accuracy, and linearity, and the results showed that the new method is suitable for determination of seven process-related impurities of celecoxib.

Chemometrics Approaches in Forced Degradation Studies of Pharmaceutical Drugs

Chemometrics is the chemistry field responsible for planning and extracting the maximum of information of experiments from chemical data using mathematical tools (linear algebra, statistics, and so on). Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) can form impurities when exposed to excipients or environmental variables such as light, high temperatures, acidic or basic conditions, humidity, and oxidative environment. By considering that these impurities can affect the safety and efficacy of the drug product, it is necessary to know how these impurities are yielded and to establish the pathway of their formation. In this context, forced degradation studies of pharmaceutical drugs have been used for the characterization of physicochemical stability of APIs. These studies are also essential in the validation of analytical methodologies, in order to prove the selectivity of methods for the API and its impurities and to create strategies to avoid the formation of degradation products. This review aims to demonstrate how forced degradation studies have been actually performed and the applications of chemometric tools in related studies. Some papers are going to be discussed to exemplify the chemometric applications in forced degradation studies.

A novel quality by design approach for developing an HPLC method to analyze herbal extracts: A case study of sugar content analysis

The aim of this study was to present a novel analytical quality by design (AQbD) approach for developing an HPLC method to analyze herbal extracts. In this approach, critical method attributes (CMAs) and critical method parameters (CMPs) of the analytical method were determined using the same data collected from screening experiments. The HPLC-ELSD method for separation and quantification of sugars in Codonopsis Radix extract (CRE) samples and Astragali Radix extract (ARE) samples was developed as an example method with a novel AQbD approach. Potential CMAs and potential CMPs were found with Analytical Target Profile. After the screening experiments, the retention time of the D-glucose peak of CRE samples, the signal-to-noise ratio of the D-glucose peak of CRE samples, and retention time of the sucrose peak in ARE samples were considered CMAs. The initial and final composition of the mobile phase, flow rate, and column temperature were found to be CMPs using a standard partial regression coefficient method. The probability-based design space was calculated using a Monte-Carlo simulation method and verified by experiments. The optimized method was validated to be accurate and precise, and then it was applied in the analysis of CRE and ARE samples. The present AQbD approach is efficient and suitable for analysis objects with complex compositions.