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Lavoie J, Fan J, Pourdeyhimi B, Boi C, Carbonell RG. Advances in high-throughput, high-capacity nonwoven membranes for chromatography in downstream processing: A review. Biotechnol Bioeng 2024; 121:2300-2317. [PMID: 37256765 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Nonwoven membranes are highly engineered fibrous materials that can be manufactured on a large scale from a wide range of different polymers, and their surfaces can be modified using a large variety of different chemistries and ligands. The fiber diameters, surface areas, pore sizes, total porosities, and thicknesses of the nonwoven mats can be carefully controlled, providing many opportunities for creative approaches for the development of novel membranes with unique properties to meet the needs of the future of downstream processing. Fibrous membranes are already finding use in ultrafiltration, microfiltration, depth filtration, and, more recently, in membrane chromatography for product capture and impurity removal. This article summarizes the various methods of manufacturing nonwoven fabrics, and the many methods available for the modification of the fiber surfaces. It also reviews recent studies focused on the use of nonwoven fabric devices in membrane chromatography and provides some perspectives on the challenges that need to be overcome to increase binding capacities, decrease residence times, and reduce pressure drops so that eventually they can replace resin column chromatography in downstream process operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Lavoie
- Biomanufacturing Training and Education Center, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jinxin Fan
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Behnam Pourdeyhimi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Nonwovens Institute, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Cristiana Boi
- Biomanufacturing Training and Education Center, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum-Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Ruben G Carbonell
- Biomanufacturing Training and Education Center, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- National Institute for Innovation for Manufacturing Biopharmaceuticals (NIIMBL), University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
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2
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Ito T, Lutz H, Tan L, Wang B, Tan J, Patel M, Chen L, Tsunakawa Y, Park B, Banerjee S. Host cell proteins in monoclonal antibody processing: Control, detection, and removal. Biotechnol Prog 2024; 40:e3448. [PMID: 38477405 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Host cell proteins (HCPs) are process-related impurities in a therapeutic protein expressed using cell culture technology. This review presents biopharmaceutical industry trends in terms of both HCPs in the bioprocessing of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and the capabilities for HCP clearance by downstream unit operations. A comprehensive assessment of currently implemented and emerging technologies in the manufacturing processes with extensive references was performed. Meta-analyses of published downstream data were conducted to identify trends. Improved analytical methods and understanding of "high-risk" HCPs lead to more robust manufacturing processes and higher-quality therapeutics. The trend of higher cell density cultures leads to both higher mAb expression and higher HCP levels. However, HCP levels can be significantly reduced with improvements in operations, resulting in similar concentrations of approx. 10 ppm HCPs. There are no differences in the performance of HCP clearance between recent enhanced downstream operations and traditional batch processing. This review includes best practices for developing improved processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao Ito
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Herb Lutz
- Independent Consultant, Sudbury, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Lihan Tan
- Life Science Services, Sigma-Aldrich Pte Ltd, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Bin Wang
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Chemicals (Shanghai) Co. Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA Darmstadt, Germany), Shanghai, China
| | - Janice Tan
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Pte Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), Singapore
| | - Masum Patel
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Life Sciences Pvt. Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), Bangalore, India
| | - Lance Chen
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Pte Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), Singapore
| | - Yuki Tsunakawa
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Byunghyun Park
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), Seoul, South Korea
| | - Subhasis Banerjee
- Life Science, Process Solutions, Merck Life Sciences Pvt. Ltd. (An Affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), Bangalore, India
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3
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Schmitz F, Knöchelmann E, Kruse T, Minceva M, Kampmann M. Continuous multi-column capture of monoclonal antibodies with convective diffusive membrane adsorbers. Biotechnol Bioeng 2024; 121:1859-1875. [PMID: 38470343 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Downstream processing is the bottleneck in the continuous manufacturing of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). To overcome throughput limitations, two different continuous processes with a novel convective diffusive protein A membrane adsorber (MA) were investigated: the rapid cycling parallel multi-column chromatography (RC-PMCC) process and the rapid cycling simulated moving bed (RC-BioSMB) process. First, breakthrough curve experiments were performed to investigate the influence of the flow rate on the mAb dynamic binding capacity and to calculate the duration of the loading steps. In addition, customized control software was developed for an automated MA exchange in case of pressure increase due to membrane fouling to enable robust, uninterrupted, and continuous processing. Both processes were performed for 4 days with 0.61 g L-1 mAb-containing filtrate and process performance, product purity, productivity, and buffer consumption were compared. The mAb was recovered with a yield of approximately 90% and productivities of 1010 g L-1 d-1 (RC-PMCC) and 574 g L-1 d-1 (RC-BioSMB). At the same time, high removal of process-related impurities was achieved with both processes, whereas the buffer consumption was lower for the RC-BioSMB process. Finally, the attainable productivity for perfusion bioreactors of different sizes with suitable MA sizes was calculated to demonstrate the potential to operate both processes on a manufacturing scale with bioreactor volumes of up to 2000 L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Schmitz
- Biothermodynamics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
- Corporate Research, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmbH, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Elias Knöchelmann
- Corporate Research, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmbH, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Kruse
- Corporate Research, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmbH, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Mirjana Minceva
- Biothermodynamics, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Markus Kampmann
- Corporate Research, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmbH, Göttingen, Germany
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Rajoub N, Gerard CJJ, Pantuso E, Fontananova E, Caliandro R, Belviso BD, Curcio E, Nicoletta FP, Pullen J, Chen W, Heng JYY, Ruane S, Liddell J, Alvey N, Ter Horst JH, Di Profio G. A workflow for the development of template-assisted membrane crystallization downstream processing for monoclonal antibody purification. Nat Protoc 2023; 18:2998-3049. [PMID: 37697106 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-023-00869-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are commonly used biologic drugs for the treatment of diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, COVID-19 and various cancers. They are produced in Chinese hamster ovary cell lines and are purified via a number of complex and expensive chromatography-based steps, operated in batch mode, that rely heavily on protein A resin. The major drawback of conventional procedures is the high cost of the adsorption media and the extensive use of chemicals for the regeneration of the chromatographic columns, with an environmental cost. We have shown that conventional protein A chromatography can be replaced with a single crystallization step and gram-scale production can be achieved in continuous flow using the template-assisted membrane crystallization process. The templates are embedded in a membrane (e.g., porous polyvinylidene fluoride with a layer of polymerized polyvinyl alcohol) and serve as nucleants for crystallization. mAbs are flexible proteins that are difficult to crystallize, so it can be challenging to determine the optimal conditions for crystallization. The objective of this protocol is to establish a systematic and flexible approach for the design of a robust, economic and sustainable mAb purification platform to replace at least the protein A affinity stage in traditional chromatography-based purification platforms. The procedure provides details on how to establish the optimal parameters for separation (crystallization conditions, choice of templates, choice of membrane) and advice on analytical and characterization methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazer Rajoub
- CMAC Future Manufacturing Research Hub, c/o Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Technology and Innovation Centre, Glasgow, UK
| | - Charline J J Gerard
- CMAC Future Manufacturing Research Hub, c/o Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Technology and Innovation Centre, Glasgow, UK
| | - Elvira Pantuso
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto per la Tecnologia delle Membrane (ITM), Rende, Italy
| | - Enrica Fontananova
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto per la Tecnologia delle Membrane (ITM), Rende, Italy
| | - Rocco Caliandro
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), Bari, Italy
| | - Benny D Belviso
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto di Cristallografia (IC), Bari, Italy
| | - Efrem Curcio
- Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Calabria, Rende, Italy
| | - Fiore P Nicoletta
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, Edificio Polifunzionale, Rende, Italy
| | - James Pullen
- FUJIFILM Diosynth Biotechnologies, Billingham, UK
| | - Wenqian Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Jerry Y Y Heng
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sean Ruane
- Center for Process Innovation (CPI), Darlington, UK
| | - John Liddell
- Center for Process Innovation (CPI), Darlington, UK
| | | | - Joop H Ter Horst
- CMAC Future Manufacturing Research Hub, c/o Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Technology and Innovation Centre, Glasgow, UK
| | - Gianluca Di Profio
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto per la Tecnologia delle Membrane (ITM), Rende, Italy.
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5
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Osuofa J, Husson SM. Comparative Evaluation of Commercial Protein A Membranes for the Rapid Purification of Antibodies. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:511. [PMID: 37233572 PMCID: PMC10220532 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13050511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Protein A chromatography is ubiquitous to antibody purification. The high specificity of Protein A for binding the Fc-region of antibodies and related products enables unmatched clearance of process impurities like host cell proteins, DNA, and virus particles. A recent development is the commercialization of research-scale Protein A membrane chromatography products that can perform capture step purification with short residence times (RT) on the order of seconds. This study investigates process-relevant performance and physical properties of four Protein A membranes: Purilogics Purexa™ PrA, Gore® Protein Capture Device, Cytiva HiTrap™ Fibro PrismA, and Sartorius Sartobind® Protein A. Performance metrics include dynamic binding capacity, equilibrium binding capacity, regeneration-reuse, impurity clearance, and elution volumes. Physical properties include permeability, pore diameter, specific surface area, and dead volume. Key results indicate that all membranes except the Gore® Protein Capture Device operate with flow rate-independent binding capacities; the Purilogics Purexa™ PrA and Cytiva HiTrap Fibro™ PrismA have binding capacities on par with resins, with orders of magnitude faster throughput; and dead volume and hydrodynamics play major roles in elution behavior. Results from this study will enable bioprocess scientists to understand the ways that Protein A membranes can fit into their antibody process development strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott M. Husson
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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6
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Schmitz F, Kruse T, Minceva M, Kampmann M. Integrated double flow-through purification of monoclonal antibodies using membrane adsorbers and single-pass tangential flow filtration. Biochem Eng J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2023.108913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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7
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Labanda J, Llorens J. Separation of tripeptides in binary mixtures using ion-exchange membrane adsorber. Sep Purif Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
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Romero JJ, Jenkins EW, Osuofa J, Husson SM. Computational framework for the techno-economic analysis of monoclonal antibody capture chromatography platforms. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1689:463755. [PMID: 36586284 PMCID: PMC9868085 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
We developed a computational framework that integrates commercial software components to perform customizable technoeconomic feasibility analyses. The use of multiple software packages overcomes the shortcomings of each to provide a detailed simulation that can be used for sensitivity analyses and optimizations. In this paper, the framework was used to evaluate the performance of monoclonal antibody capture processes. To this end, the simulation framework incorporated dynamic models for the affinity chromatography step that were validated with experimental breakthrough curves. The results were integrated with an Intelligen SuperPro Designer process simulation for the evaluation of key performance indicators of the operations. As proof of concept, the framework was used to perform a sensitivity analysis and optimization for a case study in which we sought to compare membrane and resin chromatography for disposable and reusable batch capture platforms. Two membranes and one resin were selected for the capture media, which yielded six process alternatives to compare. The objective functions were set to be cost of goods, process time, and buffer utilization. The results of the optimization of these process alternatives were a set of operating conditions that display tradeoffs between competing objectives. From this application exercise, we conclude that the framework can handle multiple variables and objectives, and it is adaptable to platforms with different chromatography media and operating modes. Additionally, the framework is capable of providing ad hoc analyses for decision making in a specific production context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Romero
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Eleanor W Jenkins
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Joshua Osuofa
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
| | - Scott M Husson
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634 USA.
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9
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Kawka K, Wilton AN, Redmond EJ, Medina MFC, Lichty BD, Ghosh R, Latulippe DR. Comparison of the performance of anion exchange membrane materials for adenovirus purification using laterally-fed membrane chromatography. Biochem Eng J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2022.108417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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10
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Osuofa J, Henn D, Zhou J, Forsyth A, Husson SM. High-capacity multimodal anion-exchange membranes for polishing of therapeutic proteins. Biotechnol Prog 2021; 37:e3129. [PMID: 33475239 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
This contribution reports on a study using Purexa™-MQ multimodal anion-exchange (AEX) membranes for protein polishing at elevated solution conductivities. Dynamic binding capacities (DBC10 ) of bovine serum albumin (BSA), human immunoglobulins, and salmon sperm DNA (ss-DNA) are reported for various salt types, salt concentrations, flowrates, and pH. Using 1 mg/ml BSA, DBC10 values for Purexa™-MQ were >90 mg/ml at conductivities up to 15 mS/cm. The membranes maintained a high, salt-tolerant BSA DBC10 of 89.8 ± 2.7 (SD) over the course of 100 bind-elute cycles. Polishing studies with acidic and basic monoclonal antibodies at >2 kg/L loads showed that Purexa™-MQ had higher clearance of host cell proteins and aggregate species at high conductivity (13 mS/cm) and in the presence of phosphate than other commercial AEX media. Purexa™-MQ also had a high ss-DNA DBC10 of 50 mg/ml at conductivities up to 15 mS/cm, markedly outperforming other commercial products. In addition to the effectiveness of Purexa™-MQ for protein polishing at elevated solution conductivities, its unusually high binding capacity for ss-DNA indicates potential applications for plasmid DNA purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Osuofa
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Daniel Henn
- Purilogics, LLC, Greenville, South Carolina, USA
| | | | - Anna Forsyth
- Purilogics, LLC, Greenville, South Carolina, USA
| | - Scott M Husson
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
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Nadar S, Shooter G, Somasundaram B, Shave E, Baker K, Lua LHL. Intensified Downstream Processing of Monoclonal Antibodies Using Membrane Technology. Biotechnol J 2020; 16:e2000309. [PMID: 33006254 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202000309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The need to intensify downstream processing of monoclonal antibodies to complement the advances in upstream productivity has led to increased attention toward implementing membrane technologies. With the industry moving toward continuous operations and single use processes, membrane technologies show promise in fulfilling the industry needs due to their operational flexibility and ease of implementation. Recently, the applicability of membrane-based unit operations in integrating the downstream process has been explored. In this article, the major developments in the application of membrane-based technologies in the bioprocessing of monoclonal antibodies are reviewed. The recent progress toward developing intensified end-to-end bioprocesses and the critical role membrane technology will play in achieving this goal are focused upon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathish Nadar
- Australian Research Council Training Centre for Biopharmaceutical Innovation, Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Corner College and Cooper Roads, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Gary Shooter
- Australian Research Council Training Centre for Biopharmaceutical Innovation, Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Corner College and Cooper Roads, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Balaji Somasundaram
- Protein Expression Facility, The University of Queensland, Corner College and Cooper Roads, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Evan Shave
- Australian Research Council Training Centre for Biopharmaceutical Innovation, Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Corner College and Cooper Roads, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia.,Pharma services group, Thermo Fisher Scientific, 37 Kent St, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Queensland, 4102, Australia
| | - Kym Baker
- Pharma services group, Thermo Fisher Scientific, 37 Kent St, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Queensland, 4102, Australia
| | - Linda H L Lua
- Australian Research Council Training Centre for Biopharmaceutical Innovation, Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, Corner College and Cooper Roads, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia.,Protein Expression Facility, The University of Queensland, Corner College and Cooper Roads, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
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12
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Lee SY, Liu BL, Wu JY, Chang YK. Egg white lysozyme purification by a stirred cell contactor equipped with a weak ion-exchange nanofiber membrane: Process development and scale-up. Food Chem 2020; 338:128144. [PMID: 33092004 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A weak ion-exchange membrane (P-COOH) was synthesized by alkaline hydrolysis of a polyacrylonitrile nanofiber membrane prepared by electrospinning process. The P-COOH membrane was characterized for its physical properties and its application for purification of lysozyme from chicken egg white was investigated. The lysozyme adsorption efficiency of the P-COOH membrane operating in a stirred cell contactor (Millipore, Model 8010) was evaluated. The effects of key parameters such as the feed concentration, the rotating speed, the flow rate of feed and the operating pressure were studied. The results showed successful purification of lysozyme with a high recovery yield of 98% and a purification factor of 63 in a single step. The purification strategy was scaled-up to the higher feedstock loading volume of 32.7 and 70 mL using stirred cell contactors of Model 8050 and 8200, respectively. The scale-up processes achieved similar purification results, proving linear scalability of the purification technique adopted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sze Ying Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Sungai Long Campus, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Bing-Lan Liu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung 413310, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Yi Wu
- Graduate School of Biochemical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 243303, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Kaung Chang
- Graduate School of Biochemical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei City 243303, Taiwan.
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