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Milani NBL, van Gilst E, Pirok BWJ, Schoenmakers PJ. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography- A discussion on recent innovations. J Sep Sci 2023; 46:e2300304. [PMID: 37654057 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202300304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Although comprehensive 2-D GC is an established and often applied analytical method, the field is still highly dynamic thanks to a remarkable number of innovations. In this review, we discuss a number of recent developments in comprehensive 2-D GC technology. A variety of modulation methods are still being actively investigated and many exciting improvements are discussed in this review. We also review interesting developments in detection methods, retention modeling, and data analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nino B L Milani
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Eric van Gilst
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Bob W J Pirok
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Peter J Schoenmakers
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Science (HIMS), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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2
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Schöneich S, Cain CN, Sudol PE, Synovec RE. Enabling cuboid-based fisher ratio analysis using total-transfer comprehensive three-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1708:464341. [PMID: 37660566 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Comprehensive three-dimensional (3D) gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC3-TOFMS) is a promising instrumental platform for the separation of volatiles and semi-volatiles due to its increased peak capacity and selectivity relative to comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with TOFMS (GC×GC-TOFMS). Given the recent advances in GC3-TOFMS instrumentation, new data analysis methods are now required to analyze its complex data structure efficiently and effectively. This report highlights the development of a cuboid-based Fisher ratio (F-ratio) analysis for supervised, non-targeted studies. This approach builds upon the previously reported tile-based F-ratio software for GC×GC-TOFMS data. Cuboid-based F-ratio analysis is enabled by constructing 3D cuboids within the GC3-TOFMS chromatogram and calculating F-ratios for every cuboid on a per-mass channel basis. This methodology is evaluated using a GC3-TOFMS data set of jet fuel spiked with both non-native and native components. The neat and spiked jet fuels were collected on a total-transfer (100 % duty cycle) GC3-TOFMS instrument, employing thermal modulation between the first (1D) and second dimension (2D) columns and dynamic pressure gradient modulation between the 2D and third dimension (3D) columns. In total, cuboid-based F-ratio analysis discovered 32 spiked analytes in the top 50 hits at concentration ratios as low as 1.1. In contrast, tile-based F-ratio analysis of the corresponding GC×GC-TOFMS data only discovered 28 of the spiked analytes total, with only 25 of them in the top 50 hits. Along with discovering more analytes, cuboid-based F-ratio analysis of GC3-TOFMS data resulted in fewer false positives. The increased discoverability is due to the added peak capacity and selectivity provided by the 3D column with GC3-TOFMS resulting in improved chromatographic resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Schöneich
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Caitlin N Cain
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Paige E Sudol
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Robert E Synovec
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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3
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Tungkijanansin N, Nolvachai Y, Varanusupakul P, Hinchiranan N, Kulsing C, Marriott PJ. Development and Application of a Novel Multiloop Splitter-Based Non-cryogenic Artificial Trapping Modulation System in Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography. Anal Chem 2023. [PMID: 37290005 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c04710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A multiloop splitter-based non-cryogenic artificial trapping (M-SNAT) modulation technique was established, which applied the first (1D) nonpolar and the second (2D) polar columns, deactivated fused silica (DFS) columns, a microfluidic Deans switch (DS), and splitters located between the 1D column outlet and the DS. The splitters were connected into multiple loops with a progressively doubled perimeter of the next loop. This enabled a duplex splitting mechanism within each loop consisting of splitting of analyte pulses, the pulse delay, and their combination which led to equally split peaks of the same analytes with the number of split peaks (nsplit) equal to 2m (m = number of loops). This system resulted in local profiles of artificially split-and-trapped analytes prior to their selective transfers onto the 2D column by means of periodic multiple heart-cuts (H/C). The developed SNAT approach can be successful, providing that the ratio of modulation period to sampling time (PM/tsamp) is equal to nsplit. The approach with nsplit = 16 was further developed into a single device platform and applied for the modulation of a wide range of compounds in waste tire pyrolysis samples with the RSD of ≤0.01 and <10% for the one-dimensional modulated peak times and peak areas, respectively (n = 50). The method enabled an artificial modulation mechanism without cryogen consumption and enhanced the 2D peak capacity (2nc) and 2D separation by use of a longer 2D column.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuttanee Tungkijanansin
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Yada Nolvachai
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton VIC 3800, Melbourne, Australia
- CASS Food Research Centre, School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Burwood 3125, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Napida Hinchiranan
- Department of Chemical Technology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Center of Excellence on Petrochemical and Materials Technology (PETROMAT), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Catalysis for Bioenergy and Renewable Chemicals (CBRC), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Chadin Kulsing
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Special Task Force for Activating Research (STAR) in Flavor Science, Chulalongkorn University, Phayatai Road, Wangmai, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Philip J Marriott
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton VIC 3800, Melbourne, Australia
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Nolvachai Y, Amaral MSS, Marriott PJ. Foods and Contaminants Analysis Using Multidimensional Gas Chromatography: An Update of Recent Studies, Technology, and Applications. Anal Chem 2023; 95:238-263. [PMID: 36625115 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c04680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yada Nolvachai
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Michelle S S Amaral
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Philip J Marriott
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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Meziani A, Verloy S, Ferroukhi O, Roca S, Curat A, Tisse S, Peulon-Agasse V, Gardeniers H, Desmet G, Cardinael P. Evaluation of Gas Chromatography Columns with Radially Elongated Pillars as Second-Dimension Columns in Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography. Anal Chem 2022; 94:14126-14134. [PMID: 36194872 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated the use of a dedicated gas chromatography (GC) column (L = 70 cm, 75 μm deep, and 6.195 mm wide) with radially elongated pillars (REPs) as the second column in a comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × μGC) system. Three stationary phases [apolar polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), medium polar room-temperature ionic liquid (RTIL) based on monocationic phosphonium, and polar polyethylene glycol (PEG-1000)] have been coated using the static method at constant pressure or using an original vacuum pressure program (VPP) from 400 to 4 mbar. The best efficiency reached up to N = 62,000 theoretical plates for a film thickness of 47 nm at 100 °C for an iso-octane peak (k = 0.16) at an optimal flow rate of 4.8 mL/min. The use of the VPP improved the efficiency by approximately 15%. Efficiencies up to 28,000 and 47,000 were obtained for PEG-1000 and RTIL, respectively. A temperature-programmed separation of a mixture of 11 volatile compounds on a PDMS-coated chip was obtained in less than 36 s. The PDMS-, PEG-1000-, and RTIL-coated chips were tested as the second column using a microfluidic reverse fill/flush flow modulator in a GC × μGC system. The REP columns were highly compatible with the operating conditions in terms of flow rate and with more than 30,000 plates for the iso-octane peak. Moreover, a commercial solvent called white spirit containing alkanes and aromatic compounds was injected in three sets of columns in normal and reverse modes, demonstrating the great potential of the chip as a second-dimension separation column.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amel Meziani
- Univ Rouen Normandie, FR CNRS 3038, SMS, UR3233, Rouen F-76000, France.,Laboratoire de Chromatographie, Faculté de Chimie, USTHB, BP 32 EL-Alia, Alger 16111, Algeria
| | - Sandrien Verloy
- Department of Chemical Engineering CHIS, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels 1050, Belgium.,Mesoscale Chemical Systems, University of Twente, Enschede 7522, North Brabant, Netherlands
| | - Ouassila Ferroukhi
- Laboratoire de Chromatographie, Faculté de Chimie, USTHB, BP 32 EL-Alia, Alger 16111, Algeria
| | - Sebastien Roca
- Univ Rouen Normandie, FR CNRS 3038, SMS, UR3233, Rouen F-76000, France
| | - Aurelien Curat
- Univ Rouen Normandie, FR CNRS 3038, SMS, UR3233, Rouen F-76000, France
| | - Severine Tisse
- Univ Rouen Normandie, FR CNRS 3038, SMS, UR3233, Rouen F-76000, France
| | | | - Han Gardeniers
- Mesoscale Chemical Systems, University of Twente, Enschede 7522, North Brabant, Netherlands
| | - Gert Desmet
- Department of Chemical Engineering CHIS, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels 1050, Belgium
| | - Pascal Cardinael
- Univ Rouen Normandie, FR CNRS 3038, SMS, UR3233, Rouen F-76000, France
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Cai H, Stearns SD. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography using direct flow modulation to extend the secondary dimension separation time. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1669:462930. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.462930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Dinç E, Ertekin ZC, Büker E. A novel strategy on the spectrochromatographic analysis of a quaternary mixture by parallel factor analysis model. Biomed Chromatogr 2021; 36:e5295. [PMID: 34877675 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Poor chromatographic resolution is one of the main challenges in chromatographic analysis. Partially separated chromatographic peaks frequently occur, due to the nature of analytes and the demand for fast analysis using high flow rates and shorter columns. Modeling of chromatographic three-way data using suitable chemometric tools enables determining co-eluted peaks without using additional experimental efforts. In this paper, parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) was applied to chromatographic data for the quantitative resolution of a quaternary mixture at the co-elution condition of acetaminophen, aspirin, ascorbic acid, and guaifenesin in a spectrochromatogram. The spectrochromatograms of the calibration set, validation set, and real samples were arranged as a three-way array. In the next step, the PARAFAC model was implemented to decompose the spectrochromatographic array into trilinear components, corresponding to spectral, chromatographic, and relative concentration profiles of the analytes. The chromatographic and spectral modes were used for the qualitative analysis of components, whereas the analytes in commercial tablets were quantified from their individual profiles in their concentration mode. This study indicated that the application of the PARAFAC model provided a novel strategy for determining overlapping peaks in a chromatogram to perform the analysis of multicomponent mixtures with reduced runtime and without additional efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdal Dinç
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Zehra Ceren Ertekin
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Eda Büker
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
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Mikaliunaite L, Sudol PE, Cain CN, Synovec RE. Baseline correction method for dynamic pressure gradient modulated comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1652:462358. [PMID: 34237483 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A baseline correction method is developed for comprehensive two-dimensional (2D) chromatography (GC × GC) with flame-ionization detection (FID) using dynamic pressure gradient modulation (DPGM). The DPGM-GC × GC-FID utilized porous layer open tubular (PLOT) columns in both dimensions to focus on light hydrocarbon separations. Since DPGM is nominally a stop-flow modulation technique, a rhythmic baseline disturbance is observed in the FID signal that cycles with the modulation period (PM). This baseline disturbance needs to be corrected to optimize trace analysis. The baseline correction method has three steps: collection of a background "blank" chromatogram and multiplying it by an optimized normalization factor, subtraction of the normalization-optimized background chromatogram from a sample chromatogram, and application of Savitzky-Golay smoothing. An alkane standard solution, containing pentane, hexane and heptane was used for method development, producing linear calibration curves (r2 > 0.991) over a broad concentration range (7.8 ppm - 4000 ppm). Further, the limit-of-detection (LOD) and limit-of-quantification (LOQ) were determined for pentane (LOD = 2.5 ppm, LOQ = 8.2 ppm), hexane (LOD = 0.9 ppm, LOQ = 3.0 ppm), and heptane (LOD = 1.9 ppm, LOQ = 6.4 ppm). A natural gas sample separation illustrated method applicability, whereby the DPGM produced a signal enhancement (SE) of 30 for isopentane, where SE is defined as the height of the tallest 2D peak in the modulated chromatogram for the analyte divided by the height of the unmodulated 1D peak. The 30-fold SE resulted in about a 10-fold improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) for isopentane. Additional versatility of the baseline correction method for more complicated samples was demonstrated for an unleaded gasoline sample, which enabled the detection (and visual appearance) of trace components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Mikaliunaite
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Paige E Sudol
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Caitlin N Cain
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Robert E Synovec
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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Trinklein TJ, Warren CG, Synovec RE. Determination of the Signal-To-Noise Ratio Enhancement in Comprehensive Three-Dimensional Gas Chromatography. Anal Chem 2021; 93:8526-8535. [PMID: 34097388 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c01190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We investigate the extent to which comprehensive three-dimensional gas chromatography (GC3) provides a signal enhancement (SE) and a signal-to-noise ratio enhancement (S/NRel) relative to one-dimensional (1D)-GC. Specifically, the SE is defined as the ratio of the tallest 3D peak height from the GC3 separation to the 1D peak height from the unmodulated 1D-GC separation. A model is proposed which allows the analyst to predict the theoretically attainable SE (SET) based upon the peak width and sampling density inputs. The model is validated via comparison of the SET to the experimentally measured SE (SEM) obtained using total-transfer GC3 (100% duty cycle for both modulators) with time-of-flight mass spectrometry detection. Two experimental conditions were studied using the same GC3 column set, differing principally in the modulation period from the 1D to 2D columns: 4 s versus 8 s. Under the first set of conditions, the average SEM was 97 (±22), in excellent agreement with the SET of 97 (±18). The second set of conditions improved the average SEM to 181 (±27), also in agreement with the average SET of 176 (±26). The average S/NRel following correction for the mass spectrum acquisition frequency was 38.8 (±11.2) and 59.0 (±27.2) for the two sets of conditions. The enhancement in S/N is largely attributed to moving the signal to a higher frequency domain where the impact of "low frequency" noise is less detrimental. The findings here provide strong evidence that GC3 separations can provide enhanced detectability relative to 1D-GC and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) separations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Trinklein
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Cable G Warren
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Robert E Synovec
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
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Zanella D, Focant J, Franchina FA. 30
th
Anniversary of comprehensive two‐dimensional gas chromatography: Latest advances. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ansa.202000142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Zanella
- Molecular System, Organic & Biological Analytical Chemistry Group University of Liège Liège Belgium
| | - Jean‐François Focant
- Molecular System, Organic & Biological Analytical Chemistry Group University of Liège Liège Belgium
| | - Flavio A. Franchina
- Molecular System, Organic & Biological Analytical Chemistry Group University of Liège Liège Belgium
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Trinklein TJ, Schöneich S, Sudol PE, Warren CG, Gough DV, Synovec RE. Total-transfer comprehensive three-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1634:461654. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Schöneich S, Trinklein TJ, Warren CG, Synovec RE. A systematic investigation of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry with dynamic pressure gradient modulation for high peak capacity separations. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1134:115-124. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Development of gas chromatographic pattern recognition and classification tools for compliance and forensic analyses of fuels: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1132:157-186. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Cain CN, Schöneich S, Synovec RE. Development of an Enhanced Total Ion Current Chromatogram Algorithm to Improve Untargeted Peak Detection. Anal Chem 2020; 92:11365-11373. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin N. Cain
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Sonia Schöneich
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Robert E. Synovec
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
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