Health Care Resource Utilization Among Children With Congenital Heart Disease: A Population-Based Study

High-Quality Hospital Status on Health Care Costs for Pediatric Congenital Heart Disease Care for U.S. Military Beneficiaries

INTRODUCTION

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the most common and resource demanding birth defect managed in the United States, with approximately 40,000 children undergoing CHD surgery year. Researchers have compared high-volume to low-volume hospitals and found significant hospital-level variation in major complications, health resource utilization, and health care costs after CHD surgery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using nationwide representative claim data from the United States Military Health System from 2016 to 2020, TRICARE beneficiaries diagnosed with CHD were tabulated based on ICD-10 codes (International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision). We examined the relationships between total costs and total hospitalizations costs post 1-year CHD diagnosis and presence or absence of High-Quality Hospital (HQH) designation. We applied both the naive generalized linear model (GLM) to control for the observed patient and hospital characteristics and the 2-stage least squares (2SLS) model to account for the unobserved confounding factors. This study was approved by University of Maryland, College Park Institutional Review Board (IRB) (Approval Number: 1576246-2).

RESULTS

A relationship between HQH designation and total CHD related costs was not seen across 2SLS model specifications (marginal effect; -$41,579; 95% CI, -$83,429 to $271). For patients diagnosed with a moderate-complex or single ventricle CHD, the association of HQH status was a statistically significant reduction in total costs (marginal effect; -$84,395; 95% CI, -$140,560 to -$28,229) and hospitalization costs (marginal effect; -$73,958; 95% CI, -$121,878 to -$26,039).

CONCLUSIONS

It is very imperative for clinicians and patient support advocates to urge policymakers to deliberate the establishment of a quality designation authority for CHD management. These efforts will not only help to identify and standardize quality care metrics but to improve long-term health, effectiveness, and equity in the management of CHD. Furthermore, these efforts can be used to navigate patients to proven HQH, thereby improving care and reducing associated treatment costs for CHD patients.

Implementation of the International Consortium of Health Outcomes Measurement CHD standard set in patients undergoing pulmonary valve replacement

BACKGROUND

Despite the burden of CHD, a high cost and utilization condition, an implementation of long-term outcome measures is lacking. The objective of this study is to pilot the implementation of the International Consortium of Health Outcomes Measurement CHD standard set in patients undergoing pulmonary valve replacement, a procedure performed in mostly well patients with diverse CHD.

METHODS

Patients ≥ 8 years old undergoing catheterization-based pulmonary valve replacement were approached via various approaches for patient-reported outcomes, with a follow-up assessment at 3 months post-procedure. Implementation strategy analysis was performed via a hybrid type 2 design.

RESULTS

Of the 74 patients undergoing pulmonary valve replacement, 32 completed initial patient-reported outcomes with variable response rates by strategy (email and in-person explanation 100%, email only 54%, and email followed by text/call 64%). Ages ranged 8-67 years (mean 30). Pre-procedurally, 34% had symptomatic arrhythmias, which improved post-procedure. For those in school, 43% missed ≥ 6 days per year, and over half had work absenteeism. Financial concerns were reported in 34%. Patients reported high satisfaction with life (50% [n = 16]) and health-related quality of life (90% [n = 26]). Depression symptoms were reported in 84% (n = 27) and anxiety in 62.5% (n = 18), with tendency towards improvement post-procedurally.

CONCLUSION

Pilot implementation of the International Consortium of Health Outcomes Measurement CHD standard set in pulmonary valve replacement patients reveals a significant burden of disease not previously reported. Barriers to the implementation include a sustainable, automated system for patient-reported outcome collection and infrastructure to assess in real time. This provides an example of implementing cardiac outcomes set in clinical practice.

The Quebec Congenital Heart Disease Registry: A Model of Prospective Databank to Facilitate Research in Congenital Cardiology

Background

A national registry of congenital heart disease (CHD) would facilitate project initiation, decrease costs, increase statistical power, and avoid duplication. Establishing such registries poses numerous challenges, but the current Canadian research ecosystem in CHD is well positioned to meet them. We assessed the feasibility of building a province-wide CHD registry by automatically identifying people with CHD and extracting their native cardiac anatomy from multiple clinical data sources, without the need for manual data entry.

Methods

We designed a CHD registry of all fetuses and children with at least 1 echocardiographic report confirming CHD since 2000. We interfaced the registry with several clinical and echocardiography data sources from all paediatric cardiology programmes in Québec.

Results

We extracted 885,287 echocardiogram reports and 70,121 clinical records. We identified CHD in 43,452 children and 4682 fetuses. There were 1128 (2.3%) cases with files in multiple institutions, and patients with more complex CHD were 3 times more likely to be seen in more than 1 institution. So far, the registry has been used to build and link CHD cohorts for 7 distinct projects.

Conclusions

We demonstrated the feasibility of a baseline CHD registry in Québec without the need for manual data entry, in which other CHD research projects could be nested. This could serve as a blueprint to expand the registry and to develop an integrated approach where data gathered in caring for patients with CHD serve as data layers that incrementally contribute to a national cohort, for which data remain easily accessible and usable.

Risk factors for isolated atrial septal defect secundum morbidity

Atrial septal defect secundum is a common type of congenital heart defect and even more common among children born premature. The aim of this study was to assess premature birth as a potential associated risk factors for cardiac morbidity in children with isolated ASD II. In this retrospective national registry-based case-control study all children born in Sweden between 2010 and 2015 with an isolated ASD II diagnosis were included. Association between premature birth and cardiac morbidity in children with isolated ASD II was assessed by different outcomes-models using conditional logistic regression and adjustments were made for confounding factors. Overall, 11% of children with an isolated ASD II received treatment for heart failure. Down syndrome was the only independent risk factors for associated with cardiac morbidity in children with ASD II (OR = 2.25 (95%CI 1.25-4.07). Preterm birth in children was not associated with an increased risk of ASD II cardiac morbidity.

The Association of High-Quality Hospital Use on Health Care Outcomes for Pediatric Congenital Heart Defects in a Universal Health Care System

INTRODUCTION

Congenital heart disease (CHD) has an incidence of 0.8% to 1.2% worldwide, making it the most common birth defect. Researchers have compared high-volume to low-volume hospitals and found significant hospital-level variation in major complications, health resource utilization, and mortality after CHD surgery. In addition, researchers found critical CHD patients at low-volume/non-teaching facilities to be associated with higher odds of inpatient mortality when compared to CHD patients at high-volume/teaching hospitals (odds ratio 1.76). We examined the effects of high-quality hospital (HQH) use on health care outcomes and health care costs in pediatric CHD care using an instrumental variable (IV) approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using nationwide representative claim data from the United States Military Health System from 2016 to 2020, TRICARE beneficiaries with a diagnosis of CHD were tabulated based on relevant ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision) codes. We examined the relationships between annual readmissions, annual emergency room (ER) use, and mortality and HQH use. We applied both the naive linear probability model (LPM), controlling for the observed patient and hospital characteristics, and the two-stage least squares (2SLS) model, accounting for the unobserved confounding factors. The differential distance between the patient and the closest HQH at the index date and the patient and nearest non-HQH was used as the IV. This protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Maryland, College Park (Approval Number: 1576246-2).

RESULTS

The naive LPM indicated that HQH use was associated with a higher probability of annual readmissions (marginal effect, 18%; 95% CI, 0.12 to 0.23). The naive LPM indicated that HQH use was associated with a higher probability of mortality (marginal effect, 2.2%; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.03). Using the differential distance of closest HQH and non-HQH, we identified a significant association between HQH use and annual ER use (marginal effect, -14%; 95% CI, -0.24 to -0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

After controlling for patient-level and facility-level covariates and adjusting for endogeneity, (1) HQH use did not increase the probability of more than one admission post 1-year CHD diagnosis, (2) HQH use lowered the probability of annual ER use post 1-year CHD diagnosis, and (3) HQH use did not increase the probability of mortality post 1-year CHD diagnosis. Patients who may have benefited from utilizing HQH for CHD care did not, alluding to potential barriers to access, such as health insurance restrictions or lack of patient awareness. Although we used hospital quality rating for congenital cardiac surgery as reported by the Society of Thoracic Surgeons, the contributing data span a 4-year period and may not reflect real-time changes in center performance. Since this study focused on inpatient care within the first-year post-initial CHD diagnosis, it may not reflect the full range of health system utilization. It is necessary for clinicians and patient advocacy groups to collaborate with policymakers to promote the development of an overarching HQH designation authority for CHD care. Such establishment will facilitate access to HQH for military beneficiary populations suffering from CHD.

Study on the trend of congenital heart disease inpatient costs and its influencing factors in economically underdeveloped areas of China, 2015-2020: a case study of Gansu Province

Background

Economic data on congenital heart disease are scarce in economically underdeveloped areas of China. Therefore, this study aimed to shed light on the level and changing trend of congenital heart disease inpatients' economic burden in underdeveloped areas.

Method

This study used a multi-stage stratified cluster sampling method to select 11,055 inpatients with congenital heart disease from 197 medical and health institutions in Gansu Province. Their medical records and expenses were obtained from the Hospital Information System. Univariate analysis was conducted using the rank sum test and Spearman rank correlation. Quantile regression and random forest were used to analyze the influencing factors.

Results

From 2015 to 2020, the average length of stay for congenital heart disease patients in Gansu Province was 10.09 days, with an average inpatient cost of USD 3,274.57. During this period, the average inpatient costs per time increased from USD 3,214.85 to USD 3,403.41, while the average daily inpatient costs increased from USD 330.05 to USD 376.56. The average out-of-pocket costs per time decreased from USD 2,305.96 to USD 754.77. The main factors that affected the inpatient costs included length of stay, cardiac procedure, proportion of medications, age, and hospital level.

Conclusion

Congenital heart disease causes a significant economic burden on both families and society. Therefore, to further reduce the patient's financial burden, the length of stay should be reasonably reduced, and the rational distribution of medical resources should be continuously promoted to ensure equitable access to healthcare services.

Underinsurance Among Children With Special Health Care Needs in the United States

Importance

A rise in pediatric underinsurance during the last decade among households with children with special health care needs (CSHCN) requires a better understanding of which households, by health care burden or income level, have been most impacted.

Objective

To examine the prevalence of underinsurance across categories of child medical complexity and the variation in underinsurance within these categories across different levels of household income.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study used data from the National Survey of Children's Health and included 218 621 US children from 2016 to 2021. All children included did not reside in any type of institution (eg, correctional institutions, juvenile facilities, orphanages, long-term care facilities). Data were analyzed from January 2016 to December 2021.

Exposures

The primary exposure is a categorization of child health care needs constructed using parent-reported child physical and behavioral health conditions, as well as the presence of functional limitations.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcome variable is underinsurance, defined as absence of consistent or adequate health insurance. Models were adjusted for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and stratified by household income. Multivariate logistic regression analysis of pooled cross-sectional survey data across multiple years (2016 to 2021) adjusted for complex survey design (weights).

Results

In a total sample of 218 621 children who were not in institutions and were aged 0 to 17 years from 2016 to 2021 (105 478 [48.9%] female; 113 143 [51.1%] male; 13 571 [13.0%] non-Hispanic Black children; 149 706 [51.2%] non-Hispanic White children), underinsurance prevalence was higher among the children who had complex physical conditions (3316 [37.0%]), mental or behavioral conditions (5432 [38.1%]), or complex physical conditions and functional limitations (1407 [40.7%]) or mental or behavioral conditions with limitations (3442 [41.1%]), compared with healthy children (ie, children without special health care needs or limitations) (52 429 [31.2%]). The association between underinsurance and complexity of child health care needs varied by household income. In households earning 200% to 399% federal poverty level (FPL), underinsurance was associated with children having complex physical conditions and limitations (OR, 2.74; 95% CI, 2.13-3.51) and mental or behavioral conditions and limitations (OR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.87-2.62), compared with healthy children. In households earning 400% or more above FPL, children's mental or behavioral conditions and limitations were associated with underinsurance (OR, 3.31; 95% CI, 2.82-3.88) compared with healthy children.

Conclusions and relevance

In this cross-sectional study, the odds of being underinsured were not uniform among CSHCN. Both medical complexity and daily functional limitations led to increased odds of being underinsured. The concentration of underinsurance among middle-income households underpinned the challenge of health care financing for families of CSHCN whose incomes surpassed eligibility thresholds for dependent Medicaid insurance.

The family burden of paediatric heart disease during the chronic phase of illness

BACKGROUND

CHD is a lifelong condition with a significant burden of disease to patients and families. With increased survival, attention has shifted to longer-term outcomes, with a focus on social determinants of health. Among children with CHD, socioeconomic status is associated with disparities in outcomes. Household material hardship is a concrete measure of poverty and may serve as an intervenable measure of socioeconomic status.

METHODS

A longitudinal survey study was conducted at multiple time points (at acute hospitalisation, then 12-24 months later in the chronic phase) to determine the prevalence of household material hardship among parents of children with advanced heart disease and quality of life during long-term follow-up.

RESULTS

The analytic cohort was 160 children with a median patient age of 1 year (IQR 1,4) with 54% of patients <2 years. During acute hospitalisation, over one-third of families reported household material hardship (37%), with significantly lower household material hardship in the chronic phase at 16% (N = 9 of 52). For parents reporting household material hardship during acute hospitalisation, 50% had resolution of household material hardship by the chronic phase. Household material hardship-exposed children were significantly more likely to be publicly insured (56% versus 20%, p = 0.03) with lower quality of life than those without household material hardship (64% versus 82%, p = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

The burden of heart disease during the chronic phase of illness is high. Household material hardship may serve as a target to ensure equity in the care and outcomes of CHD patients and their families.

Does universal insurance influence disparities in high-quality hospital use for inpatient pediatric congenital heart defect care within the first year of diagnosis?

BACKGROUND

Healthcare disparities are an issue in the management of Congenital Heart Defects (CHD) in children. Although universal insurance may mitigate racial or socioeconomic status (SES) disparities in CHD care, prior studies have not examined these effects in the use of High-Quality Hospitals (HQH) for inpatient pediatric CHD care in the Military Healthcare System (MHS). To assess for racial and SES disparities in inpatient pediatric CHD care that may persist despite universal insurance coverage, we performed a cross-sectional study of the HQH use for children treated for CHD in the TRICARE system, a universal healthcare system for the U.S. Department of Defense. In the present work we evaluated for the presence of disparities, like those seen in the civilian U.S. healthcare system, among military ranks (SES surrogate) and races and ethnicities in HQH use for pediatric inpatient admissions for CHD care within a universal healthcare system (MHS).

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study using claims data from the U.S. MHS Data Repository from 2016 to 2020. We identified 11,748 beneficiaries aged 0 to 17 years who had an inpatient admission for CHD care from 2016 to 2020. The outcome variable was a dichotomous indicator for HQH utilization. In the sample, 42 hospitals were designated as HQH. Of the population, 82.9% did not use an HQH at any point for CHD care and 17.1% used an HQH at some point for CHD care. The primary predictor variables were race and sponsor rank. Military rank has been used as an indicator of SES status. Patient demographic information at the time of index admission post initial CHD diagnosis (age, gender, sponsor marital status, insurance type, sponsor service branch, proximity to HQH based on patient zip code centroid, and provider region) and clinical information (complexity of CHD, common comorbid conditions, genetic syndromes, and prematurity) were used as covariates in multivariable logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

After controlling for demographic and clinical factors including age, gender, sponsor marital status, insurance type, sponsor service branch, proximity to HQH based on patient zip code centroid, provider region, complexity of CHD, common comorbid conditions, genetic syndromes, and prematurity, we did not find disparities in HQH use for inpatient pediatric CHD care based upon military rank. After controlling for demographic and clinical factors, lower SES (Other rank) was less likely to use an HQH for inpatient pediatric CHD care; OR of 0.47 (95% CI of 0.31 to 0.73).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that for inpatient pediatric CHD care in the universally insured TRICARE system, historically reported racial disparities in care were mitigated, suggesting that this population benefitted from expanded access to care. Despite universal coverage, SES disparities persisted in the civilian care setting, suggesting that universal insurance alone cannot sufficiently address differences in SES disparities in CHD care. Future studies are needed to address the pervasiveness of SES disparities and potential interventions to mitigate these disparities such as a more comprehensive patient travel program.

Association between maternal marginalization and infants born with congenital heart disease in Ontario Canada

BACKGROUND

This study aims to evaluate the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on the risk of congenital heart disease (CHD) since previous studies have yielded inconsistent results.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based retrospective cohort study, including all singleton live and still births in Ontario hospitals from April 1, 2012, to March 31, 2018. We used linked records from the Better Outcomes Registry & Network Information System, the Canadian Institute for Health Information databases, and the Ontario Marginalization Index (ON_Marg). ON_Marg was estimated at a dissemination area level using Canadian Census 2016 data and categorized into quintiles. Multivariable logistic regression models were performed to examine the relationships between four ON_Marg indices (material deprivation, dependency, ethnic concentration, residential instability), as proxies for maternal SES and the risk of infant CHD. We adjusted for maternal age at birth, assisted reproductive technology, obesity, pre-existing health conditions, substance use during pregnancy, mental health conditions before and during pregnancy, rural residence, and infant's sex in the analysis.

RESULTS

Among the cohort of 776,799 singletons, 9,359 infants had a diagnosis of CHD. Of those, 3,069 were severe CHD and 493 cases were single ventricle CHD. The prevalence of all infant CHD types was higher for males relative to females. Compared to mothers living in neighbourhoods with the lowest material deprivation, mothers with highest material deprivation had a 27% (adjusted OR = 1.27; 95% CI: 1.18-1.37) higher odds of having an infant diagnosed with CHD. Mothers living in neighbourhoods with the highest minority ethnic and immigrant concentration tend to have infants with 11% lower odds of CHD (adjusted OR = 0.89; 95% CI: 0.82-0.97) as compared to those living in the least ethnically diverse communities. Maternal dependency and residential stability quintiles were not significantly associated with the risk of CHD.

CONCLUSION

Higher maternal material deprivation was associated with increasing odds of infant CHD, whereas neighbourhood minority ethnic concentration was inversely associated with the odds of infant CHD. Our study further confirms that poverty is associated with CHD development. Future investigations might focus on the causal pathways between social deprivation, immigrant status, ethnicity, and the risk of infant CHD.

Third-Grade Academic Performance and Episodes of Cardiac Care Among Children with Congenital Heart Defects

Children with congenital heart defects (CHDs) are at risk for poor academic performance. The degree to which receipt of health care services is associated with adverse academic outcomes is not known. We examined the association between episodes of cardiac care and third-grade performance in children with CHD. We identified subjects between 1/1/2008 and 4/30/2012 among 5 centers in North Carolina. We classified children by CHD type and linked subjects to the state educational records. Any inpatient or outpatient cardiac encounter on a date of service was considered an encounter. We calculated the number of encounters by adding the number of inpatient or outpatient cardiac visits prior to the date of the end-of-grade (EOG) tests. We estimated the odds of failing third-grade reading or math EOG tests by episodes of care stratified at the 50th percentile, controlling for CHD type, maternal education, sex, race/ethnicity, birth weight, and gestational age. A total of 184 children had third-grade EOG scores linked to health care records. The median number of episodes of care was 4 (range: 1-60). Those with visits ˃ 50th percentile (> 4 encounters/year over the 4.3 year observation period) had 2.09 (95% CI 1.04, 4.21) greater odds of failing the math EOG compared to those ≤ 50th percentile (1-4 encounters). The third-grade math score declined by 1.5 points (P < 0.008) for every 10 episodes of care. There was no association of episodes of care on third-grade reading performance. Children with CHD with > 4 episodes of cardiac care/year may be at risk for delays in third-grade academic performance. Strategies to minimize school absenteeism may improve academic success in this population.

Length of Stay and Home Discharge for Patients with Inpatient Stroke Rehabilitation

OBJECTIVE

To examine temporal trends and geographic variations and predict inpatient rehabilitation (IPR) length of stay (LOS) and home discharge for stroke patients.

METHODS

Patients aged ≥18 years who were admitted to an IPR facility in Alberta, Canada, between 04/2014 and 03/2018 (years 2014-2017) were included. Predictors of LOS and home discharge were examined using 2014-2016 data and validated using 2017 data. Multivariable linear regression (MLR), multivariable negative binomial (MNB), and multivariable quantile regressions (MQR) were used to examine LOS, and logistic regression was used for home discharge.

RESULTS

We included 2686 rehabilitation admissions between 2014 and 2017. The mean LOS decreased (2014: 71 days; 2017: 62.1 days; p = 0.003) during the study period and was shortest in Edmonton (59.1 days) compared to Calgary (66 days) or other localities (70.8 days; p < 0.001). Three-quarters of patients were discharged home and this proportion remained unchanged between 2014 and 2017. Calgary patients were more likely to be discharged home than those in Edmonton (OR = 0.62; p = 0.019) or other localities (OR = 0.39; p = 0.011). The MLR and MNB models provided accurate prediction for the mean LOS (predicted = 59.9 and 60.8 days, respectively, vs. actual = 62.1 days; both p > 0.5), while the MQR model did so for the median LOS (predicted = 44.3 days vs. actual = 44 days; p = 0.09). The logistic regression resulted in 82.4% of correct prediction, a sensitivity of 91.6%, and a specificity of 50.7% for home discharge.

CONCLUSIONS

Rehabilitation LOS decreased while the proportion of home discharge remained unchanged during the study period. Both varied across health zones. Identifiable statistical models provided accurate prediction with a separate patient cohort.

The Canadian Pediatric Cardiology Research Network: A Model National Data-Sharing Organization to Facilitate the Study of Pediatric Heart Diseases

BACKGROUND

Common hurdles to pediatric cardiology research include the heterogeneity and relative rarity of specific cardiac malformations, the potential for effect of residual lesions occurring decades after repair, and the scarcity of objective and easily measurable outcomes such as death and transplantation.

METHODS

To help meet these challenges, the Canadian Pediatric Cardiology Research Network (CPCRN) was founded by the Canadian Pediatric Cardiology Association to link Canadian academic institutions to promote and facilitate multicollaborations for the benefit of pediatric and congenital cardiology research. The overarching goal of the CPCRN is to build a national framework that harnesses the strong desire for collaboration within the pediatric cardiology community and to identify solutions to barriers that impede multicentre partnerships.

RESULTS

In this report, the authors describe the approach and the components of the CPCRN. Specifically, we detail the rolling out of a pan-Canadian master agreement that covers current and future studies, the systematic banking of all project data, and the mechanisms developed to facilitate secondary use of data.

CONCLUSIONS

This experience could help guide the formation of other national research groups, particularly those focused on congenital or rare diseases.

Temporal Trends Of Pharmacologic Therapies For Patients With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease In Alberta, Canada

Objectives

To describe the trends in pharmacologic treatment for patients newly diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in Alberta, Canada.

Methods

We linked Alberta health databases to identify patients aged ≥35 years with incident COPD between April 2010 and March 2017. Incident cases were defined as those who did not have a hospitalization or outpatient visit with COPD in the previous 2 years. Patients were categorized into two groups: 1) incident cases at a hospital and 2) incident cases at an outpatient clinic, and both were followed until death or being censored by 31 March 2018. Utilization of COPD medication for 30 days following incident event and adherence in maintenance therapy over time were reported.

Results

The study included 33,169 patients with incident COPD (hospital: 9,089; outpatient: 24,080). In 18,666 (56.3%) patients starting medication within 30 days of the incident event (2010: 52.7%; 2016: 56.6%; p=0.002), SABA (60.5%) and LABA/ICS (41.6%) were most commonly used. ICS (without LABA) was used in 14.2% and was used as monotherapy in 4.5% of patients. The proportion of patients who initiated any ICS was similar (hospital: 56.7%; outpatient: 55.7%; p=0.194) and decreased in both settings over time (p<0.001). Drug adherence during the first year after the incident event was 54.3%, higher among hospital patients (66.5% vs 48.9%; p<0.001), and improved over time (2010: 53.4%; 2016: 57.4%; p<0.001).

Conclusion

The initiation of and adherence to pharmacologic therapy for patients with COPD is low but improves over time. While SABA and LABA/ICS are most commonly used, ICS utilization decreases over time.