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Mondal H, Kim HJ, Mohanto N, Jee JP. A Review on Dry Eye Disease Treatment: Recent Progress, Diagnostics, and Future Perspectives. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15030990. [PMID: 36986851 PMCID: PMC10051136 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Dry eye disease is a multifactorial disorder of the eye and tear film with potential damage to the ocular surface. Various treatment approaches for this disorder aim to alleviate disease symptoms and restore the normal ophthalmic environment. The most widely used dosage form is eye drops of different drugs with 5% bioavailability. The use of contact lenses to deliver drugs increases bioavailability by up to 50%. Cyclosporin A is a hydrophobic drug loaded onto contact lenses to treat dry eye disease with significant improvement. The tear is a source of vital biomarkers for various systemic and ocular disorders. Several biomarkers related to dry eye disease have been identified. Contact lens sensing technology has become sufficiently advanced to detect specific biomarkers and predict disease conditions accurately. This review focuses on dry eye disease treatment with cyclosporin A-loaded contact lenses, contact lens biosensors for ocular biomarkers of dry eye disease, and the possibility of integrating sensors in therapeutic contact lenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himangsu Mondal
- Drug Delivery Research Lab, College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Joong Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea
| | - Nijaya Mohanto
- Drug Delivery Research Lab, College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun-Pil Jee
- Drug Delivery Research Lab, College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea
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Leanpolchareanchai J, Tangteerakoon P, Supapsophon P, Sukavatcharin S, Simaroj P, Suksiriworapong J. Extemporaneous Preparation of 20 mg/mL Ganciclovir in Artificial Tears in Comparison with Sterile Water for Ophthalmic Administration: Formulation and Stability Study. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15010208. [PMID: 36678836 PMCID: PMC9866864 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Ganciclovir is available as a lyophilized powder for reconstitution and is normally used to treat ophthalmic viral infections. The use of ganciclovir in artificial tears containing hydrocolloid polymers may prove beneficial to patients during drug application, by prolonging contact time and providing a moistening effect. Therefore, this study aimed to extemporaneously prepare 20 mg/mL ganciclovir in artificial tears and compare its stability with that of a similar concentration of ganciclovir in sterile water (SWI) for ophthalmic administration. First, a compatibility study of the drug with commercial artificial tears found that it was compatible with artificial tears containing sodium hyaluronate (HYA). Subsequently, ganciclovir/0.1% HYA (HYA0.1) and ganciclovir/SWI eyedrops (EDs) in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) eyedrop bottles packed in light-shielded zipper bags were evaluated for their stability at 5 ± 3 °C and 30 ± 2 °C. The results revealed that ganciclovir/SWI ED had good physicochemical and microbiological stability when stored at 5 ± 3 °C for 12 weeks and at 30 ± 2 °C for 8 weeks. Meanwhile, ganciclovir/HYA0.1 ED was stable for 8 weeks when kept at 5 ± 3 °C and at 30 ± 2 °C, but ganciclovir in 0.3% HYA ED could be stored at 5 ± 3 °C for 8 weeks. Nevertheless, particulate matter may need to be investigated using a suitable method to ensure the absence of invisible particles in these preparations. Of these results, ganciclovir/HYA artificial tears and SWI EDs show potential for use as home medications for the treatment of ophthalmic viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patamaporn Tangteerakoon
- Chemotherapy Pharmacy Unit, Drug Compounding Section, Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Patcharin Supapsophon
- Pharmacy Services, Somdech Phra Debaratana Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Somsiri Sukavatcharin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Pornchai Simaroj
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Jiraphong Suksiriworapong
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- Correspondence:
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Merino ML, Belmonte J, Rosas J, Acosta MC, Gallar J, Belmonte C. Maximal tear secretion evoked by controlled stimulation of corneal sensory nerves in healthy individuals and dry eye subjects. Ocul Surf 2023; 27:80-88. [PMID: 36396021 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2022.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To measure, the tear flow changes evoked in healthy subjects and dry eye disease (DED) patients by controlled sensory stimulation of the eye surface with i-Onion™, a new stimulation device. METHODS Sensory corneal nerves were stimulated with an instrument (i-Onion™) that ejects puffs of CO2 gas (99.9%) at 200 ml·min-1 for 3s, delivered 5 mm from the cornea. Using Schirmer test strips, tear volumes were measured over 3 min in the cornea of one eye before (basal tear volume -BTV) and in the other eye after stimulation of the sensory nerves with CO2 (stimulated tear volume -STV). These measurements were obtained from a control group of adults of either sex (17 students aged 20-30 and 29 subjects without signs of dry eye aged 25-61), a cohort of DED patients (aged 34-75) that included 12 asymptomatic, suspected DED subjects (Schirmer <7 mm and/or TBUT <10s), and 30 Sjögren's syndrome (SS) patients. RESULTS CO2 stimulation significantly increased the tear volume (BTV = 14.6 ± 1.0 mm, STV = 19.0 ± 1.1 mm: n = 46) in 78% of control subjects, reflecting a mean tear reserve volume (TRV = STV-BTV) of 4.4 ± 0.8 mm. Individual differences were wide, and while no increase in reflex tearing was evoked in 30% of subjects with a BTV >10 mm, the remaining 70% responded vigorously to stimulation, even those with a BTV >18 mm. Asymptomatic DED subjects displayed weaker responses to CO2 stimulation, with lower STVs. Both the BTV and STV of SS patients were low, significantly below those of the healthy controls. CONCLUSIONS Measuring the rise in reflex tearing volume evoked by controlled corneal stimulation provides objective information about the tear glands' secretory capacity in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- María L Merino
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, San Juan de Alicante, Spain; Oftalmología, Hospital de la Marina Baixa, Villajoyosa, Spain
| | - Javier Belmonte
- Oftalmología, Hospital General Universitario de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - José Rosas
- Reumatología, Hospital de la Marina Baixa, Villajoyosa, Spain
| | - M Carmen Acosta
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, San Juan de Alicante, Spain
| | - Juana Gallar
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, San Juan de Alicante, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biomédica y Sanitaria de Alicante, San Juan de Alicante, Spain
| | - Carlos Belmonte
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, San Juan de Alicante, Spain.
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Corsi F, Arteaga K, Corsi F, Masi M, Cattaneo A, Selleri P, Crasta M, Peruccio C, Guandalini A. Clinical parameters obtained during tear film examination in domestic rabbits. BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:398. [DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03492-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
One of the contributing factors to ocular surface health is a stable precorneal tear film. Considering the increasing interest in rabbits as pets and the limited literature available on domestic rabbit tearing, the aim of this study was to establish normative data for examination of the tear film in domestic rabbits.
Results
The study included 75 client-owned domestic Holland Lop rabbits (150 eyes). The following examinations were performed in each eye: Schirmer tear test-1, tear osmometry, interferometry, tear meniscus height measurement and meibography (quantifying meibomian gland loss as a percentage). The resulting median (95% central range) values were 10.0 (5.0–17.3) mm/min for the Schirmer tear test-1, 345.0 (280.5–376.1) mOsm/L for tear osmolarity, grade 2 (1–4) of interferometry, 0.28 (0.20–0.47) mm for tear meniscus height and 0.0 (0.0–67.6) % meibomian gland loss. A significant association was found between tear osmolarity and age, with an estimated decrease of − 4.0 mOsm/L with each additional year of age (p < 0.001). The distributions of interferometry grades were significantly different between males and females (p < 0.001), with grade 1 and grade 2 being the most frequent in females and males, respectively. A weak negative correlation was also observed between interferometry grade and the percentage of meibomian gland loss (r = − 0.22, p = 0.006).
Conclusions
This is an original study that documents extensive tear film parameters in healthy Holland Lop rabbits. The results can be used as normative data for the examination of the tear film in this lagomorph breed.
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Jurja S, Negreanu‑Pirjol T, Vasile M, Hincu M, Ciuluvica R, Negreanu‑Pirjol BS. Comparative antioxidant activity of various ophthalmic product types for artificial tears under different experimental conditions. Exp Ther Med 2022; 23:330. [PMID: 35401809 PMCID: PMC8987944 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2022.11259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial tears or lubricants is a developing category in pharmaceutical research, due to the permanent increasing incidence of dry eye syndrome caused by the extensive use of personal computers and other gadget screens, associated with global warming and pollution. Considering the role of inflammation in dry eye syndrome, characterized by the production of free radicals, it is imperative to determine which elements are more significant in forming an artificial tear more effectively and more comfortably for the eye state and for the quality of life. Thus, the aim of the present study was to examine the evolution of the total antioxidant capacity of some frequently commercialized artificial tears via the photochemiluminescence method, using an antioxidant capacity of lipid soluble substances procedure, prior and subsequent to the exposure of these therapy agents to some physical agents. This is a preliminary research aiming to evaluate the impact of various environmental factors on these ophthalmic products, to be continued by evaluating whether the effectiveness of these products, in terms of objective examination and patient preference and adherence criteria, is impacted by the conditions of use and storage. Thus, the total antioxidant capacity of the evaluated artificial tear samples after UVC irradiation at 254 nm wavelength was studied, in order to investigate whether their status suffered any change in terms of antioxidant potential. In addition to the findings obtained in the study, some recommendations were also made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanda Jurja
- Faculty of Medicine, ‘Ovidius’ University of Constanta, 900470 Constanta, Romania
| | | | - Monica Vasile
- Faculty of Medicine, ‘Ovidius’ University of Constanta, 900470 Constanta, Romania
| | - Mihaela Hincu
- Faculty of Medicine, ‘Dunarea de Jos’ University, 800010 Galati, Romania
| | - Radu Ciuluvica
- Faculty of Medical Dentistry, ‘Carol Davila’ University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 010221 Bucharest, Romania
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Turan E, Valtink M, Reinach PS, Skupin A, Luo H, Brockmann T, Ba Salem MHO, Pleyer U, Mergler S. L-carnitine suppresses transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 activity and myofibroblast transdifferentiation in human corneal keratocytes. J Transl Med 2021; 101:680-689. [PMID: 33637945 PMCID: PMC8137454 DOI: 10.1038/s41374-021-00538-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Corneal stromal wound healing is a well-balanced process promoted by overlapping phases including keratocyte proliferation, inflammatory-related events, and tissue remodeling. L-carnitine as a natural antioxidant has shown potential to reduce stromal fibrosis, yet the underlying pathway is still unknown. Since transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) is a potential drug target for improving the outcome of inflammatory/fibrogenic wound healing, we investigated if L-carnitine can mediate inhibition of the fibrotic response through suppression of TRPV1 activation in human corneal keratocytes (HCK). We determined TRPV1-induced intracellular calcium transients using fluorescence calcium imaging, channel currents by planar patch-clamping, and cell migration by scratch assay for wound healing. The potential L-carnitine effect on TRPV1-induced myofibroblast transdifferentiation was evaluated by immunocytochemical detection of alpha smooth muscle actin. RT-PCR analysis confirmed TRPV1 mRNA expression in HCK. L-carnitine (1 mmol/l) inhibited either capsaicin (CAP) (10 µmol/l), hypertonic stress (450 mOsmol/l), or thermal increase (>43 °C) induced Ca2+ transients and corresponding increases in TRPV1-induced inward and outward whole-cell currents. This was accompanied by suppression of injury-induced increases in myofibroblast transdifferentiation and cell migration. In conclusion, L-carnitine contributes to inhibit stromal scarring through suppressing an injury-induced intrinsic TRPV1 activity that is linked with induction of myofibroblast transdifferentiation in HCK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Turan
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Monika Valtink
- Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus of the TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Peter S Reinach
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, PR China
| | - Annett Skupin
- Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus of the TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Huan Luo
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tobias Brockmann
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Kapelle-Ufer 2, 10117, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universitätsmedizin Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Marah Hussain Omar Ba Salem
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Uwe Pleyer
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Mergler
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.
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Rabbit as an Animal Model for Ocular Surface Disease, Tear Osmolarity, Electrolyte, and Tear Ferning Profiles. Optom Vis Sci 2021; 97:847-851. [PMID: 33055509 DOI: 10.1097/opx.0000000000001583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE The tear film promotes ocular surface health and protection through its various constituents' functions. The application of methods for ocular surface examination is essential in the research of diseases that affect the tear film. Rabbits have been used as a model to study some human ocular diseases and to test ophthalmic products. PURPOSE The aim of the present study was to determine the biochemical profile, osmolarity, and tear ferning patterns of rabbit tears. METHODS Ten rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were evaluated for tear osmolarity, tear ferning types and grades (using Rolando and Masmali scales), and biochemical analysis of total protein, urea, and electrolytes (chloride, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, and calcium). RESULTS Median ± semi-interquartile range for tear osmolarity was 283.5 ± 7.5 mOsm/L. Tear ferning test grades were type 1.0 ± 0.5 on the Rolando scale and 1.0 ± 0.5 on the Masmali scale. Type I and grade 1 were the most commonly observed ferning classifications (60 and 50%, respectively) for the rabbits' tears. Results for electrolytes and other biochemical compounds were as follows: total protein 4.40 g/dL, urea 130.60 mg/dL, chloride 196.51 mEq/L, phosphate 7.35 mg/dL, iron 95.76 μg/dL, sodium 202.04 mmol/L, potassium 12.74 mmol/L, and calcium 11.53 mg/dL. CONCLUSIONS The results of the various tests described herein may serve as a basis for research using rabbits as an ophthalmic disease model and in the development of diagnostic and therapeutic agents used for ocular health.
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Bron AJ, Willshire C. Tear Osmolarity in the Diagnosis of Systemic Dehydration and Dry Eye Disease. Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11:387. [PMID: 33668748 PMCID: PMC7996182 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11030387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic dehydration due to inadequate water intake or excessive water loss, is common in the elderly and results in a high morbidity and significant mortality. Diagnosis is often overlooked and there is a need for a simple, bedside diagnostic test in at-risk populations. Body hydration is highly regulated with plasma osmolality (pOsm) being tightly controlled over a wide range of physiological conditions. By contrast, normal tear osmolarity (tOsm) is more variable since the tear film is exposed to evaporation from the open eye. While plasma hyperosmolality is a diagnostic feature of systemic dehydration, tear hyperosmolality, with other clinical features, is diagnostic of dry eye. Studies in young adults subjected to exercise and water-deprivation, have shown that tOsm may provide an index of pOsm, with the inference that it may provide a simple measure to diagnose systemic dehydration. However, since the prevalence of both dry eye and systemic dehydration increases with age, the finding of a raised tOsm in the elderly could imply the presence of either condition. This diagnostic difficulty can be overcome by measuring tear osmolality after a period of evaporative suppression (e.g., a 45 min period of lid closure) which drives tOsm osmolality down to a basal level, close to that of the pOsm. The arguments supporting the use of this basal tear osmolarity (BTO) in the diagnosis of systemic dehydration are reviewed here. Further studies are needed to confirm that the BTO can act as a surrogate for pOsm in both normally hydrated subjects and in patients with systemic dehydration and to determine the minimum period of lid closure required for a simple, "point-of-care" test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J. Bron
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Nuffield Laboratory of Ophthalmology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6HZ, UK
| | - Catherine Willshire
- Ophthalmology Research, Hinchingbrooke Hospital, North West Anglia Trust, Huntingdon PE29 6NT, UK;
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Lamkin ID, Zimmerman KL, Smith Fleming KM, Martins BC. Osmolarity of basal and reflex tears of normal dogs. Vet Ophthalmol 2020; 23:747-753. [PMID: 32584492 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare basal and reflex tear osmolarity in healthy dogs and to evaluate for correlation among tear film osmolarity, tear production, and tear fern pattern. ANIMALS STUDIED The population consisted of 22 healthy adult dogs. PROCEDURES Reflex tear osmolarity was measured in both eyes using the I-PEN® VET osmometer 30 minutes following the Schirmer tear test (STT-1) measurement. Subsequently, two minutes following topical anesthetic application, the lacrimal lake and conjunctival fornices were dried, and 3 minutes later, basal tear osmolarity was measured. Tears were extracted from the dye-free STT-1 strip by centrifugation, placed on a glass slide, and the ferning pattern was determined by light microscopy. Comparisons between basal and reflex tears were performed with one-way ANOVA. Correlations between tear osmolarity, STT-1, and tear ferning were verified by Pearson's correlation coefficient. RESULTS No statistical difference was found between right and left eyes for STT-1, tear fern pattern, and osmolarity of reflex or basal tears (P < .05). There was no statistical difference between osmolarity of basal and reflex tears among individuals (P < .05). No correlation was detected between tear fern pattern and osmolarity of reflex tears. A weak positive correlation was detected between STT-1 values and osmolarity of reflex, but not basal tears. CONCLUSIONS The osmolarity of basal tears did not differ from that of reflex tears. A positive weak correlation exists between tear production and osmolarity of reflex tears. No correlation was detected between tear osmolarity measured by handheld osmometer and tear ferning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irini D Lamkin
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Kelli L Zimmerman
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Kathryn M Smith Fleming
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Bianca C Martins
- Veterinary Clinical Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois - Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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Assessment and management of dry eye disease. Eye (Lond) 2018; 32:200-203. [PMID: 29303149 DOI: 10.1038/eye.2017.289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The topic of the 1984 Cambridge Ophthalmological Symposium was 'The Dry Eye'; it was chaired by my colleague and mentor Mr Peter Wright. In the 33 years that have passed since then we have learned a great deal more about this condition. This short paper sets out to review some of the more recent developments.
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