Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in diagnosis and treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis with moderately elevated serum-IgG4 - characterization and outcome of a distinct variant phenotype

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Immunoglobulin G4-associated cholangitis (IAC) is characterized by distinctly elevated immunoglobulin G4 in serum (sIgG4) and responds well to corticosteroid therapy. Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC) is a progressive liver disease without causal treatment options usually not responding to immunosuppression. Increased serum levels of sIgG4 in patients with PSC, that do not meet criteria of IAC, have been reported in 10%-25%. Therefore, we aimed to characterize this subgroup of patients in a retrospective, multicenter study.

METHODS

sIgG4 values of 289 patients with PSC from three German university hospitals were analysed. Patients with elevated sIgG4 levels were identified and further characterized by clinical and biochemical parameters and by cholangiographic presentation. Clinical endpoints, death and liver transplantation were compared between groups. Parameters associated with outcome were identified with Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

14.5% of patients with PSC showed increased sIgG4 levels (PSC-IgG4), presented with significantly higher (P < .02) albumin, aspartate-aminotransferase, bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase and had a significant lower prevalence of a concomitant autoimmune hepatitis (P = .025). Cholangiogram obtained via ERC showed extrahepatic dominant strictures more often in the PSC-IgG4 subgroup (P = .047). The disease severity models Amsterdam-Oxford-Score (P = .018) and Mayo-Risk-Score (P = .025) predicted lower survival rates for the PSC-IgG4 subgroup. Transplant-free survival after first diagnosis of PSC was shorter in patients with elevated sIgG4 (11.6 vs 15.1 years, P = .001).

CONCLUSION

Patients with PSC and elevated sIgG4 should be considered as a distinct subgroup, characterized by different clinical and cholangiographical features and are associated with an inferior outcome.

Present and future role of endoscopic retrograde cholangiography in primary sclerosing cholangitis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a rare, inflammatory cholestatic liver disease that causes biliary strictures which can lead to secondary complications. About 30-50% of PSC patients develop dominant strictures (DS) in the biliary tree, which are both the cause of jaundice and bacterial cholangitis as well as predilection spots for development of neoplastic development. Cancer is the most common cause of death in PSC. A central concern is to distinguish malignant from benign strictures, which eventually is done by invasive methods to obtain a brush cytology or biopsy sample, in most cases via endoscopic retrograde cholangiography-pancreatography (ERCP). Since medical therapies, like ursodesoxycholic acid or immunosuppressive drugs have no proven effect, therapeutic ERCP has become the primary management strategy to improve symptoms and in some patients may slow down disease progression. This article aims at outlining the current and emerging methods in ERCP in PSC patients.

Effect of scheduled endoscopic dilatation of dominant strictures on outcome in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis

OBJECTIVE

Scheduled endoscopic dilatation of dominant strictures (DS) in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) might improve outcome relative to endoscopic treatment on demand, but evidence is limited. Since randomisation is difficult in clinical practice, we present a large retrospective study comparing scheduled versus on-demand endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) based on patient preferences.

DESIGN

Between 1987 and 2017, all new patients with PSC had been offered scheduled ERCP with dilatation of a DS if diagnosed; the latter was repeated at defined intervals until morphological resolution, independent of clinical symptoms (treatment group). Patients who refused participation were clinically evaluated annually and received endoscopic treatment only on demand (control group). The primary clinical endpoint was transplantation-free survival. Secondary outcomes were overall survival, bacterial cholangitis episodes, hepatic decompensation of liver cirrhosis and endoscopy-related adverse events.

RESULTS

The final study included 286 patients, 133 (46.5%) receiving scheduled ERCP and 153 (53.5%) receiving on-demand ERCP. After a mean follow-up of 9.9 years, the rate of transplantation-free survival was higher in patients receiving scheduled ERCP (51% vs 29.3%; p<0.001), as was transplantation-free survival time (median: 17.9 vs 15.2 years; log-rank: p=0.008). However, the benefit of scheduled ERCP was significant only in patients with the initial (17.1%) or later (45.5%) diagnosis of a DS (17.8 vs 11.1 years; log-rank: p<0.001). IBD (p=0.03), DS (p=0.006), higher Mayo Risk Score (p=0.02) and non-adherence to scheduled endoscopy (p=0.005) were independently associated with transplantation-free survival.

CONCLUSION

In our large retrospective study, regular ERCP with endoscopic balloon dilatation significantly benefits patients with PSC with DS, diagnosed both at initial presentation and during surveillance, even if asymptomatic. Further studies have to find out how to best identify stricture patients non-invasively.

Stenting for Benign and Malignant Biliary Strictures

Benign and malignant biliary strictures are common indications for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Diagnosis involves high-quality cross-sectional imaging and cholangiography with various endoscopic sampling techniques. Treatment options include placement of plastic biliary stents and self-expanding metal stents, which differ in patency duration and cost effectiveness. Whether the etiology is benign or malignant, a multidisciplinary strategy should be implemented. This article will discuss general principles of biliary stenting in both benign and malignant conditions.

Dominant strictures in primary sclerosing cholangitis: A multicenter survey of clinical definitions and practices

Dominant strictures (DSs) of the biliary tree occur in approximately 50% of patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and may cause significant morbidity. Nevertheless, the definition and management of DSs lacks consensus. We aimed to better understand current perceptions and practices regarding PSC‐associated DSs. We conducted an anonymous, 23‐question, survey‐based study wherein electronic surveys were distributed to 131 faculty in the Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology at the three Mayo Clinic campuses (Rochester, Scottsdale, and Jacksonville) as well as the affiliated practice network. Responses were aggregated and compared, where applicable, to practice guidelines of the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and European Association for the Study of the Liver. A total of 54 faculty (41.2%) completed the survey, of whom 24 (44.4%) were hepatologists, 21 (38.9%) gastroenterologists, and 9 (16.7%) advanced endoscopists. One of the major study findings was that there was heterogeneity among participants' definition, evaluation, management, and follow‐up of DSs in PSC. The majority of participant responses were in accordance with societal practice guidelines, although considerable variation was noted. Conclusion: Despite the prevalence and morbidity of DSs in PSC, clinical perceptions and practices vary widely among hepatologists, gastroenterologists, and advanced endoscopists who manage these patients, even within a single health care system. Further studies are needed to address these variations, develop general and evidence‐based consensus, and increase adherence to societal guidelines. (Hepatology Communications 2018;2:836‐844)

The Role of Genetic and Immune Factors for the Pathogenesis of Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis in Childhood

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a rare cholestatic liver disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the biliary tree resulting in liver fibrosis. PSC is more common in male less than 40 years of age. The diagnosis of PSC is based on clinical, laboratory, image, and histological findings. A biochemical profile of mild to severe chronic cholestasis can be observed. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography is the golden standard method for diagnosis, but magnetic resonance cholangiography is currently also considered a first-line method of investigation. Differences in clinical and laboratory findings were observed in young patients, including higher incidence of overlap syndromes, mostly with autoimmune hepatitis, higher serum levels of aminotransferases and gamma-glutamyl transferase, and lower incidence of serious complications as cholangiocarcinoma. In spite of the detection of several HLA variants as associated factors in large multicenter cohorts of adult patients, the exact role and pathways of these susceptibility genes remain to be determined in pediatric population. In addition, the literature supports a role for an altered immune response to pathogens in the pathogenesis of PSC. This phenomenon contributes to abnormal immune system activation and perpetuation of the inflammatory process. In this article, we review the role of immune and genetic factors in the pathogenesis of PSC in pediatric patients.

Evaluation of Biliary Calprotectin as a Biomarker in Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the bile ducts with limited therapeutic options except liver transplantation. Reliable biomarkers to predict the disease course are unavailable, and currently employed disease activity scores such as the Mayo risk score (MRS) have limitations. The present study aims to evaluate biliary calprotectin as a marker of disease activity and prognosis in PSC.This is a monocentric retrospective observational study. Calprotectin concentrations were measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in bile samples collected by endoscopic retrograde cholangiography from 106 PSC patients and 20 controls. Biliary calprotectin concentrations were compared between the 2 groups. In PSC patients, results were evaluated with regard to the presence of dominant bile duct stenoses, bile microbiology, MRS, survival free of liver transplantation, and necessity for bile duct interventions in the further disease course.Median (interquartile ranges) biliary calprotectin concentrations were higher in PSC patients than in controls (3646 ng/mL, 249-9748 vs 116 ng/mL, 104-655; P < 0.001). In the PSC cohort, higher biliary calprotectin concentrations were associated with the presence of microbes in bile (P = 0.02), the occurrence of dominant bile duct stenosis at any time in the disease course (P = 0.005), and the necessity for future bile duct interventions (P = 0.02). Patients with biliary calprotectin concentrations above a cut-off of 11,610 ng/mL displayed significantly shorter transplantation-free survival than those with biliary calprotectin concentrations ≤11,610 ng/mL (P < 0.001). Univariate Cox regression analysis revealed high biliary calprotectin concentration (>11,610 ng/mL) as a risk factor of shorter transplantation-free survival of PSC patients (P < 0.001) beside high plasma alkaline phosphatase (ALP) concentration (>142.5 U/L) (P = 0.006), high MRS (≥2) (P < 0.001), and nonsterility of bile (P = 0.03). Multivariate analysis identified only MRS (P = 0.002) and ALP concentration (P = 0.04) as independent risk factors.Our data strongly suggest that biliary calprotectin may be a valuable additional marker for disease activity and a predictor of outcome in PSC, so that further studies for evaluation of calprotectin in this disease are warranted.

Role of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the management of benign biliary strictures: What’s new?

Benign biliary strictures comprise a heterogeneous group of diseases. The most common strictures amenable to endoscopic treatment are post-cholecystectomy, post-liver transplantation, related to primary sclerosing cholangitis and to chronic pancreatitis. Endoscopic treatment of benign biliary strictures is widely used as first line therapy, since it is effective, safe, noninvasive and repeatable. Endoscopic techniques currently used are dilation, multiple plastic stents insertion and fully covered self-expandable metal stents. The main indication for dilation alone is primary sclerosing cholangitis related strictures. In the vast majority of the remaining cases, temporary placement of multiple plastic stents with/without dilation is considered the treatment of choice. Although this approach is effective, it requires multiple endoscopic sessions due to the short duration of stent patency. Fully covered self-expandable metal stents appear as a good alternative to plastic stents, since they have an increased radial diameter, longer stent patency, easier insertion technique and similar efficacy. Recent advances in endoscopic technique and various devices have allowed successful treatment in most cases. The development of novel endoscopic techniques and devices is still ongoing.

What is the current role of endoscopy in primary sclerosing cholangitis?

Endoscopy has important roles in the management of primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), ranging from narrowing down the differential diagnoses, screening for complications, determining prognosis and therapy. While the need for a diagnostic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) may be obviated by a positive magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP), a negative MRCP does not exclude PSC and may therefore necessitate an ERCP, which is traditionally regarded as the gold standard. In this editorial we have not covered the endoscopic management of inflammatory bowel disease in the context of PSC nor of endoscopic surveillance and treatment of portal hypertension complicating PSC.

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography for primary sclerosing cholangitis

Although there are no randomized, controlled trials evaluating the efficacy of endoscopic retrograde cholangiography (ERC) in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) patients, substantial indirect evidence supports the effectiveness of ERC in symptomatic PSC patients with a dominant stricture. Currently, cumulative evidence supports the role of ERC with endoscopic dilation with or without additional short-term stent placement for symptomatic PSC patients with a dominant stricture. Differentiating benign dominant strictures from cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) remains difficult; however, newer endoscopic techniques and advanced cytologic techniques are likely to improve sensitivity for the diagnosis of CCA over that achieved by traditional cytology brushing alone.

Advanced therapeutic endoscopist and inflammatory bowel disease: Dawn of a new role

Endoscopy plays a key role in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Colonoscopy has been traditionally used in the diagnosis of IBD and helps in determination of an important end point in patient management, “mucosal healing”. However, the involvement of an advanced endoscopist has expanded with innovations in therapeutic and newer imaging techniques. Endoscopists are increasingly being involved in the management of anastomotic and small bowel strictures in these patients. The advent of balloon enteroscopy has helped us access areas not deemed possible in the past for dilations. An advanced endoscopist also plays an integral part in managing ileal pouch-anal anastomosis complications including management of pouch strictures and sinuses. The use of rectal endoscopic ultrasound has been expanded for imaging of perianal fistulae in patients with Crohn’s disease and appears much more sensitive than magnetic resonance imaging and exam under anesthesia. Advanced endoscopists also play an integral part in detection of dysplasia by employing advanced imaging techniques. In fact the paradigm for neoplasia surveillance in IBD is rapidly evolving with advancements in endoscopic imaging technology with pancolonic chromoendoscopy becoming the main imaging modality for neoplasia surveillance in IBD patients in most institutions. Advanced endoscopists are also called upon to diagnose primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and also offer options for endoscopic management of strictures through endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). In addition, PSC patients are at increased risk of developing cholangiocarcinoma with a 20% lifetime risk. Brush cytology obtained during ERCP and use of fluorescence in situ hybridization which assesses the presence of chromosomal aneuploidy (abnormality in chromosome number) are established initial diagnostic techniques in the investigation of patients with biliary strictures. Thus advanced endoscopists play an integral part in the management of IBD patients and our article aims to summarize the current evidence which supports this role and calls for developing and training a new breed of interventionalists who specialize in the management of IBD patients and complications specific to those patients.

Biliary phosphatidylcholine and lysophosphatidylcholine profiles in sclerosing cholangitis

AIM: To analyze phospholipid profiles in intrahepatic bile from patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and secondary sclerosing cholangitis (SSC).

METHODS: Intrahepatic bile specimens collected via endoscopic retrograde cholangiography from 41 patients were analyzed. Fourteen of these patients were diagnosed with PSC, 10 with SSC, 11 with choledocholithiasis or no identifiable biliary disease, and 6 with cholangiocellular carcinoma (CCC). Bile acid, cholesterol, protein, and bilirubin contents as well as pancreas lipase activity in bile were determined by biochemical methods. Phosphatidylcholine (PC) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) species were quantified using nano-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS: Bile from all the examined patient groups showed a remarkably similar PC and LPC species composition, with only minor statistical differences. Total biliary PC concentrations were highest in controls (8030 ± 1843 μmol/L) and lowest in patients with CCC (1969 ± 981 μmol/L) (P = 0.005, controls vs SSC and CCC, respectively, P < 0.05). LPC contents in bile were overall low (4.2% ± 1.8%). Biliary LPC/PC ratios and ratios of biliary PC to bilirubin, PC to cholesterol, PC to protein, and PC to bile acids showed no intergroup differences.

CONCLUSION: PC and LPC profiles being similar in patients with or without sclerosing cholangitis, these phospholipids are likely not of major pathogenetic importance in this disease group.

Primary sclerosing cholangitis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic, progressive, cholestatic liver disease characterized by multifocal strictures of intra and extrahepatic bile ducts. PSC occurs more commonly in men and is often associated with inflammatory bowel disease. At present, there is no effective medical therapy for PSC. Current management of patients with PSC is centered on endoscopic therapy of biliary strictures, management of complications of chronic cholestasis and of progressive liver disease, and close clinical monitoring for development of cholangiocarcinoma, as well as for timely referral for liver transplantation.

Does an isolated benign choledochal stricture hide a PSC?

BACKGROUND

Strictures of the extra-hepatic biliary tree are rare in children and have a benign non-traumatic inflammatory origin or are related to idiopathic fibrosing pancreatitis. Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) can manifest as multiple biliary strictures or as a single dominant stricture. We describe the presentation, treatment, and outcome of six cases of isolated benign choledochal stricture (IBCS).

METHODS

All patients underwent magnetic resonance cholangiography (MRC). Five patients underwent diagnostic and therapeutic ERCP, and 4 patients underwent intra-choledochal mini-probe EUS and biopsy. Colonoscopy was performed in suspected ulcerative colitis (UC).

RESULTS

We report 6 patients (mean age at diagnosis: four males, 12.1 years; two females, 14.2 years) with IBCS. Clinical onset included 3 cases of acute biliary pancreatitis and obstructive jaundice, one obstructive jaundice, one cholestasis, and one pancreatitis. At diagnosis, MRC confirmed IBCS in all patients. Biliary sphincterotomy, stricture dilation, and stenting were performed in 4 patients. One child underwent hepaticojejunostomy for a type I choledocal cyst. During follow-up (mean: 21 months; range: 1-3 years), all patients were asymptomatic. Four patients developed UC (three pancolitis, one descending colitis). One child developed PSC.

CONCLUSION

IBCS can be successfully treated by therapeutic ERCP. The occurrence of UC could suggest that IBCS is a form of PSC.

Advances in research of primary sclerosing cholangitis

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic cholestatic autoimmune liver disease characterized by diffuse inflammation, concentric fibrosis, focal or segmental stricture of intrahepatic and/or extrahepatic bile ducts, which can eventually lead to cirrhosis or hepatic function failure. The pathogenesis of PSC may involve genetic susceptibility, innate or adaptive immunity, and Epstein-Barr virus infection. Diagnostic imaging modalities include endoscopic retrograde cholangiography, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography, and high-resolution three-dimensional SPGR. Proteomic analysis of bile and urine may become a new tool for early diagnosis of cholangiocarcinoma in PSC patients. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), endoscopic therapy and liver transplantation are major treatments for PSC.

Sampling at ERCP for cyto- and histopathologicical examination

Sampling at ERCP may be performed at the level of the papilla or of the biliopancreatic ducts. Samples collected at the level of the biliopancreatic ducts allow for diagnosing malignancy with a specificity close to 100% but present a moderate sensitivity in most studies. In this article, the different aspects of sampling at ERCP are discussed, and a special focus is placed on the means that are routinely available to the endoscopist for obtaining a high sensitivity for the diagnosis of malignancy.

In PSC with colitis treated with UDCA, most colonic carcinomas develop in the first years after the start of treatment

BACKGROUND

Patients with PSC and IBD have a high incidence of colonic carcinomas (CRC), and the annual incidence of CRC increases with duration of disease. UDCA treatment has been suggested to reduce colonic dysplasias and carcinomas.

AIMS

The annual incidence of colorectal carcinomas after long-term UDCA treatment was studied.

METHODS

Patients included in a prospective study on the outcome after ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) treatment were evaluated.

RESULTS

A total of 120 of 171 PSC patients included had IBD (108 UC and 12 CD). All patients were treated with UDCA for a median time of 6.7 years. Seven patients with PSC and IBD developed a CRC yielding a prevalence of 5.8%. In years 0-3 (n = 120) after the start of UDCA, the annual incidence rate of CRC was 0.62/100 patient years; in years 3-6 (n = 93) it increased to 1.28 and decreased thereafter in years 6-9 (n = 67) to 1.17, then in years 9-12 (n = 42) to 0 and after >12 years (n = 24) it remained 0. In PSC with IBD, Kaplan-Meier estimate of CRC formation increased with time in the first years of treatment and reached a plateau after 9 years; after treatment for ≥ 9 years, no further CRC were observed.

CONCLUSION

After the start of UDCA, the annual incidence of CRC increased up to 6 years and subsequently decreased. In PSC with IBD treated with UDCA, most colonic carcinomas develop in the first years after the start of treatment.