The expression and clinical significance of microRNA-1258 and heparanase in human breast cancer

Three Pathways of Cancer Cachexia: Inflammation, Changes in Adipose Tissue and Loss of Muscle Mass—The Role of miRNAs

According to the World Health Organization, in 2018, cancers, along with over 18 million new cases and over 9.5 million deaths remained one of the main causes of mortality globally. Cancer-cachexia, also called wasting syndrome is a complex, multifactorial disorder characterized by progressive skeletal muscle mass loss, with or without adipose tissue atrophy. It is considered as a state of cancer-related malnutrition (CRM) accompanied by inflammation, that is irreversible despite the introduction of nutritional support. Indication of markers of pre-cachectic state seems to be urgently needed. Moreover, such markers have also potential to be used in the assessment of the effects of anti-cachexia treatment, and prognosis. miRNAs are non-coding RNA molecules that are about 20–30 nucleotides long. Single miRNA has the potential to control from few dozen to several hundred different genes. Despite the fact, that the number of miRNAs keep growing. we are making steady progress in establishing regulatory targets and their physiological levels. In this review we described the current knowledge on the impact of miRNAs on processes involved in cancer cachexia development: inflammation, adipose tissue remodelling, and loss of muscle mass both in animal models and the human cohorts. The available studies suggest that miRNAs, due to their properties, e.g., the possibility of regulating even hundreds of different genes, signalling pathways, and biological processes by one molecule, but also due their stability in biological material, the fact, that the change in their level reflects the disease status or the response to the applied treatment, they have great potential to be used as valuable biomarkers in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of cancer cachexia.

Biological Role and Clinical Implications of microRNAs in BRCA Mutation Carriers

Women with pathogenic germline mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have an increased risk to develop breast and ovarian cancer. There is, however, a high interpersonal variability in the modality and timing of tumor onset in those subjects, thus suggesting a potential role of other individual’s genetic, epigenetic, and environmental risk factors in modulating the penetrance of BRCA mutations. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that can modulate the expression of several genes involved in cancer initiation and progression. MiRNAs are dysregulated at all stages of breast cancer and although they are accessible and evaluable, a standardized method for miRNA assessment is needed to ensure comparable data analysis and accuracy of results. The aim of this review was to highlight the role of miRNAs as potential biological markers for BRCA mutation carriers. In particular, biological and clinical implications of a link between lifestyle and nutritional modifiable factors, miRNA expression and germline BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations are discussed with the knowledge of the best available scientific evidence.

Molecular Mechanisms Associated with Brain Metastases in HER2-Positive and Triple Negative Breast Cancers

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequent cause of cancer-associated death for women worldwide, with deaths commonly resulting from metastatic spread to distant organs. Approximately 30% of metastatic BC patients develop brain metastases (BM), a currently incurable diagnosis. The influence of BC molecular subtype and gene expression on breast cancer brain metastasis (BCBM) development and patient prognosis is undeniable and is, therefore, an important focus point in the attempt to combat the disease. The HER2-positive and triple-negative molecular subtypes are associated with an increased risk of developing BCBM. Several genetic and molecular mechanisms linked to HER2-positive and triple-negative BC breast cancers appear to influence BCBM formation on several levels, including increased development of circulating tumor cells (CTCs), enhanced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and migration of primary BC cells to the brain and/or through superior local invasiveness aided by cancer stem-like cells (CSCs). These specific BC characteristics, together with the ensuing developments at a clinical level, are presented in this review article, drawing a connection between research findings and related therapeutic strategies aimed at preventing BCBM formation and/or progression. Furthermore, we briefly address the critical limitations in our current understanding of this complex topic, highlighting potential focal points for future research.

Hsa_circ_002178 Promotes the Growth and Migration of Breast Cancer Cells and Maintains Cancer Stem-like Cell Properties Through Regulating miR-1258/KDM7A Axis

Breast cancer (BrCa) is the most common malignancy in women. Accumulating evidence demonstrated that abnormal circRNA expression is associated with the occurrence and progression of tumors. We analyzed the GSE101123 data and found that the expression of hsa_circ_002178 (circ_002178) was significantly increased in BrCa tissues. However, the role and possible underlying mechanisms of circ_002178 in BrCa still remain unrevealed. In this investigation, the expression levels of circ_002178 in cancer tissues or BrCa cells were significantly upregulated compared with those in paracancer tissues or normal cells. High expression of circ_002178 was correlated with the low survival rate, clinical tumor size, lymph node metastasis, and tumor, nodes, and metastases grade. After microsphere culture, the expression of circ_002178 in SUM149PT and MDA-MB-231 cells was significantly increased. Further investigation exhibited that overexpression of circ_002178 contributed to the formation of microspheres, the elevated protein levels of stemness marker, and the increased activity of ALDH1 in SUM149PT cells. Besides, the overexpression of circ_002178 also significantly promoted the growth, invasion, and migration of BrCa cells. Correspondingly, the knockdown of circ_002178 showed the opposite result in MDA-MB-231 cells. Hsa_circ_002178 was further proved to downregulate the level of miR-1258 and reduce the inhibitory effect of miR-1258 on KDM7A, thus regulating the stem-like characteristics of BrCa cells and promoting the growth and migration of BrCa cells. Taken together, targeting the circ_002178/miR-1258/KDM7A axis may be a prospective strategy for the diagnosis and therapies of BrCa in the future.

Impact of Adjuvant Treatment on Heparanase Concentration in Invasive, Unilateral Breast Cancer Patients: Results of a Prospective Single-Centre Cohort Study

Background: In recent years, great progress has been made in the treatment of breast cancer, but it is still one of the ten leading causes of death in women. The aim of the study was to evaluate the heparanase concentration of invasive breast cancer (IBrC) patients, before and after cancer adjuvant treatment. Methods: Eighty patients with stage IA to IIB IBrC receiving adjuvant treatment were included prospectively in this study. The heparanase concentrations were determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A univariate analysis was used to estimate the factors influencing the low or high pre-treatment concentration of heparanase and the low or high numerical decrease in heparanase concentration after completion of adjuvant treatment. Results: Treatment reduced the concentration of heparanase by almost four times in the general IBrC cohort. Higher levels of pre- and post-treatment heparanase were noted in oestrogen receptor-negative cancers than in positive ones. A higher post-treatment concentration of heparanase was found in patients with a triple-negative tumour compared to patients with a luminal B HER2 negative type of IBrC. Overweight IBrC subjects and those with a tumour diameter of ≥2 cm demonstrated a lower chance of a lower pre-treatment heparanase concentration. Interestingly, a pre-treatment heparanase concentration is the main predictor of the changes in heparanase concentration after adjuvant treatment. Follow-up revealed significantly lower progression-free survival (PFS) rates in IBrC patients with a pre-treatment concentration of heparanase higher than 181.46 pg/mL (PFS = 80%). Conclusions: Our findings provide supporting evidence that IBrC therapy reduced the heparanase levels, regardless of treatment patterns and a pre-treatment concentration of heparanase may serve as a prognostic indicator for future outcomes.

MicroRNA-1252-5p Associated with Extracellular Vesicles Enhances Bortezomib Sensitivity in Multiple Myeloma Cells by Targeting Heparanase

INTRODUCTION

Multiple myeloma (MM) remains an incurable disease, and patient survival requires a better understanding of this malignancy's molecular aspects. Heparanase (HPSE) is highly expressed in aggressive MM cells and related to tumor growth, metastasis, and bortezomib (BTZ) resistance. Thus, targeting HPSE seems to be a promising approach for MM treatment, and because microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as potential regulators of HPSE expression, the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) can allow the efficient delivery of therapeutic miRNAs.

METHODS

We used prediction algorithms to identify potential miRNAs that regulate negatively HPSE expression. RT-qPCR was performed to assess miRNAs and HPSE expression in MM lines (U266 and RPMI-8226). Synthetic miRNA mimics were electroporated in MM cells to understand the miRNA contribution in HPSE expression, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) profile, cell proliferation, and cell death induced by BTZ. EVs derived from HEK293T cells were engineered with miRNAs to evaluate their therapeutic potential combined with BTZ.

RESULTS

It revealed a direct association between BTZ sensitivity, HPSE, and miR-1252-5p expressions. Moreover, overexpression of miR-1252-5p significantly reduced HPSE expression and HPSE enzymatic activity in MM cells. The higher level of miR-1252-5p was correlated with a reduction of cell viability and higher sensitivity to BTZ. Further, EVs carrying miR-1252-5p increased MM cells' sensitivity to BTZ treatment.

CONCLUSION

These results showed that miR-1252-5p could negatively regulate HPSE in MM, indicating the use of EVs carrying miR-1252-5p as a potential novel BTZ sensitization approach in MM cells.

miRNAs in Health and Disease: A Focus on the Breast Cancer Metastatic Cascade towards the Brain

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that mainly act by binding to target genes to regulate their expression. Due to the multitude of genes regulated by miRNAs they have been subject of extensive research in the past few years. This state-of-the-art review summarizes the current knowledge about miRNAs and illustrates their role as powerful regulators of physiological processes. Moreover, it highlights their aberrant expression in disease, including specific cancer types and the differential hosting-metastases preferences that influence several steps of tumorigenesis. Considering the incidence of breast cancer and that the metastatic disease is presently the major cause of death in women, emphasis is put in the role of miRNAs in breast cancer and in the regulation of the different steps of the metastatic cascade. Furthermore, we depict their involvement in the cascade of events underlying breast cancer brain metastasis formation and development. Collectively, this review shall contribute to a better understanding of the uniqueness of the biologic roles of miRNAs in these processes, to the awareness of miRNAs as new and reliable biomarkers and/or of therapeutic targets, which can change the landscape of a poor prognosis and low survival rates condition of advanced breast cancer patients.

miR-1258 Regulates Cell Proliferation and Cell Cycle to Inhibit the Progression of Breast Cancer by Targeting E2F1

Objective

This study is designed to clarify that miR-1258 targets E2F1 to regulate the proliferation and cell cycle of breast cancer (BC) cells and consequently suppress the progression of BC.

Methods

Bioinformatics analysis was used to analyze the differentially expressed genes in BC. The expression of miR-1258 and E2F1 mRNA in BC cell lines and immortalized breast epithelial cell lines were detected by qRT-PCR. The proliferation and growth activity of BC cells were detected by MTT and colony formation assays. The apoptosis and cell cycle of BC cells were detected by flow cytometry and the targeting relationship between miR-1258 and E2F1 was identified by dual-luciferase assay.

Results

The expression of miR-1258 was decreased while that of E2F1 was increased in BC cells. Overexpression of miR-1258 and silencing E2F1 could inhibit the cell proliferation and growth, block cells in the G0/G1 phase, and promote cell apoptosis. Besides, miR-1258 inhibited cell proliferation and growth, block cells in the G0/G1 phase, and promote cell apoptosis by downregulating E2F1.

Conclusion

miR-1258 regulates the proliferation and cell cycle to inhibit the progression of BC by targeting and downregulating E2F1.

Heparanase: Cloning, Function and Regulation

In 2019, we mark the 20th anniversary of the cloning of the human heparanase gene. Heparanase remains the only known enzyme to cleave heparan sulfate, which is an abundant component of the extracellular matrix. Thus, elucidating the mechanisms underlying heparanase expression and activity is critical to understanding its role in healthy and pathological settings. This chapter provides a historical account of the race to clone the human heparanase gene, describes the intracellular and extracellular function of the enzyme, and explores the various mechanisms regulating heparanase expression and activity at the gene, transcript, and protein level.

Potential miRNAs for miRNA-Based Therapeutics in Breast Cancer

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that can post-transcriptionally regulate the genes involved in critical cellular processes. The aberrant expressions of oncogenic or tumor suppressor miRNAs have been associated with cancer progression and malignancies. This resulted in the dysregulation of signaling pathways involved in cell proliferation, apoptosis and survival, metastasis, cancer recurrence and chemoresistance. In this review, we will first (i) provide an overview of the miRNA biogenesis pathways, and in vitro and in vivo models for research, (ii) summarize the most recent findings on the roles of microRNAs (miRNAs) that could potentially be used for miRNA-based therapy in the treatment of breast cancer and (iii) discuss the various therapeutic applications.

Frequent methylation of the tumour suppressor miR-1258 targeting PDL1: implication in multiple myeloma-specific cytotoxicity and prognostification

miR-1258 is localised to the first intron of ZNF385B at chromosome 2q31.3. miR-1258 promoter methylation was studied in 147 samples including 10 normal buffy coat, eight normal bone marrow plasma cells, 16 human myeloma cell lines (HMCLs), 20 MGUS, 63 diagnostic myeloma, and 30 relapsed myeloma samples by methylation-specific PCR. In myeloma lines, miR-1258 methylation, verified by pyrosequencing, was detected in 62·5% HMCLs but not normal controls, and expression of miR-1258 correlated with that of ZNF385B. 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine resulted in promoter demethylation and ZNF385B/miR-1258 re-expression. Luciferase assay confirmed programmed cell death ligand-1 (PDL1) as a direct target of miR-1258. Over-expression of miR-1258 in completely methylated myeloma cells led to reduced cellular proliferation and enhanced apoptosis, hence a tumour suppressor role, in addition to repression of PDL1. In primary samples, miR-1258 methylation, with lower expression of miR-1258, was detected in 49·2% diagnostic myeloma, imparting an inferior PFS (P = 0·034) in addition to 50·0% relapsed myeloma but not MGUS. Therefore, miR-1258 is a tumour suppressor miRNA co-regulated with its host gene, and frequently hypermethylated in active myeloma instead of MGUS, hence acquired during myeloma progression. Methylation-mediated miR-1258 silencing led to overexpression of PDL1 and inferior PFS, implicating miR-1258 in the modulation of myeloma-specific cytotoxicity.

MiR-1258 promotes the apoptosis of cervical cancer cells by regulating the E2F1/P53 signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

Cervical cancer is the most common malignant tumor in gynaecology with high mortality. MiRNA has been reported to regulate cell biological processes in cervical cancer. This study aimed to explore the expression of miR-1258 and role of miR-1258 by targeting E2F1 in cervical cancer cells.

METHODS

The expression of miR-1258 and E2F1 in cervical cancer cells and transfection effects was determined by RT-qPCR analysis. The expression of E2F1, MMP2, MMP7, MMP9, Bcl2, Bax, cleaved caspase3, caspase3, KI67, p-AKT, cyclinD1, CDK2, P53 and AKT in cervical cancer cells was detected by western blot analysis. The proliferation, invasion, migration and apoptosis were respectively analyzed by CCK-8 assay, transwell assay, wound healing assay and flow cytometry analysis. E2F1 was a potential target of miR-1258, which demonstrated by a dual-luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

miR-1258 expression was decreased while E2F1 expression was increased in cervical cancer cells. MiR-1258 overexpression could down-regulate the E2F1 expression. Overexpression of miR-1258 inhibited the proliferation, invasion and migration and promoted the apoptosis of cervical cancer cells by AKT and P53 signal pathway. And, Overexpression of miR-1258 also suppressed the tumor growth by AKT and P53 signal pathway. Overexpression of E2F1 reduced the inhibition effects of miR-1258 in cervical cancer.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, miR-1258 overexpression exerts its inhibition effects on the proliferation, invasion and migration and promotion effects on the apoptosis of cervical cancer cells by targeting the E2F1, which might provide new ideas for clinical treatment of cervical cancer.

MicroRNA-1258 Inhibits the Proliferation and Migration of Human Colorectal Cancer Cells through Suppressing CKS1B Expression

Increasing evidence has demonstrated that increased expression of cyclin-dependent kinase regulatory subunit 1B (CKS1B) is associated with the pathogenesis of many human cancers, including colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the regulatory mechanisms underlying the expression of CKS1B in CRC are not completely understood. Here, we investigate the role played by microRNAs in the expression of CKS1B and carcinogenesis in CRC. Among the six microRNAs predicted to target CKS1B gene expression, only miR-1258 was revealed to downregulate CKS1B expression through binding to its 3’-UTR region, as ectopic miR-1258 expression suppressed CKS1B expression and vice versa. In CRC, miR-1258 expression also decreased cell proliferation and migration in vitro and tumor growth in vivo, similar to cells with silenced CKS1B expression. Considering the highly increased levels of CKS1B and decreased expression of miR-1258 in tumors from CRC patients, these findings suggest that miR-1258 may play tumor-suppressive roles by targeting CKS1B expression in CRC. However, the therapeutic significance of these findings should be evaluated in clinical settings.

A new insight on serum microRNA expression as novel biomarkers in breast cancer patients

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the widespread lethal diseases affecting a large number of women worldwide. As such, employing and identifying significant markers for detecting BC in different stages can assist in better diagnosis and management of the disease. Several diverse markers have been introduced for diagnosis, but their limitations, including low specificity and sensitivity, reduce their application. microRNAs (miRNAs), as short noncoding RNAs, have been shown to significantly influence gene expression in different disease pathologies, especially BC. Clearly, among different samples used for detecting miRNA expressions, circulating miRNAs present as promising and useful biomarkers. Among different body fluid samples, serum serves as one of the most reliable samples, thanks to its high stability under various severe conditions and some unique features. Extensive research has suggested that BC-related miRNAs can remain stable in the serum. The objective of this review is to describe different samples used for detecting miRNAs in BC subjects with emphasis on serum miRNAs. So, this study highlights serum miRNAs with the potential of acting as biomarkers for different stages of BC. We reviewed the possible correlation between potential miRNAs and the risk of early breast cancer, metastatic breast cancer, response to chemotherapy, and relapse.

MicroRNA-1258, regulated by c-Myb, inhibits growth and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition phenotype via targeting SP1 in oral squamous cell carcinoma

The biological function and underlying mechanism of miR-1258 has seldom been investigated in cancer progression, including in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). In the current study, we revealed that the expression level of miR-1258 was significantly down-regulated in OSCC tissues and cell lines. Restoration of miR-1258 decreased OSCC cell growth and invasion. The luciferase and Western blot assays revealed that SP1 protein was a downstream target of miR-1258. Overexpression of SP1 dismissed miR-1258's effect on cell growth and invasion. We also revealed that c-Myb inhibited miR-1258 by directly binding at its promoter. In addition, miR-1258 inhibited PI3K/AKT and ERK signalling pathway activity. Taken together, these findings demonstrated that miR-1258 may function as a tumour-suppressive micorRNA in OSCC and suggested that miR-1258 may be a potential therapeutic target for OSCC patients.

Overexpression of miR-1258 inhibits cell proliferation by targeting AKT3 in osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) has emerged as the most common primary musculoskeletal malignant tumor which affects children and adolescents. A growing number of relevant studies have shown that many microRNAs (miRNAs) play a vital regulatory role in the etiology of various types of cancer. miR-1258 has been widely studied in various cancers, but there have been few studies of its role in OS. In this present study, miR-1258 expression was dramatically decreased in OS tissues as well as OS cell lines. In addition, decreased expression of miR-1258 was significantly associated with malignant clinical manifestations and poor clinical prognosis of patients with OS. Moreover, upregulation of miR-1258 significantly inhibited cell proliferation as well as promoting cell cycle arrest at G0/G1. AKT3 was identified as a direct target of miR-1258 by binding to its 3'-UTR, and miR-1258 was negatively correlated with AKT3 expression in clinical OS tissues. AKT3 was evidently upregulated in OS tissues and cells and upregulation of AKT3 accelerated the progression of OS. Moreover, through a series of rescue experiments, we demonstrated that AKT3 can abolish the role of miR-1258 in suppressing proliferation as well as regulating the cell cycle in OS cells. In conclusion, our results suggest that the miR-1258-AKT3 axis may be a promising prognostic marker and therapeutic target for human OS.

Identification of key differentially expressed MicroRNAs in cancer patients through pan-cancer analysis

microRNAs (miRNAs) functioning in gene silencing have been associated with cancer progression. However, common abnormal miRNA expression patterns and their potential roles in cancer have not yet been evaluated. To account for individual differences between patients, we retrieved miRNA sequencing data for 575 patients with both tumor and adjacent non-tumorous tissues from 14 cancer types from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). We then performed differential expression analysis using DESeq2 and edgeR. Results showed that cancer types can be grouped based on the distribution of miRNAs with different expression patterns between tumor and non-tumor samples. We found 81 significantly differentially expressed miRNAs (SDEmiRNAs) in a single cancer. We also found 21 key SDEmiRNAs (nine over-expressed and 12 under-expressed) associated with at least eight cancers each and enriched in more than 60% of patients per cancer, including four newly identified SDEmiRNAs (hsa-mir-4746, hsa-mir-3648, hsa-mir-3687, and hsa-mir-1269a). The downstream effects of these 21 SDEmiRNAs on cellular function were evaluated through enrichment and pathway analysis of 7186 protein-coding gene targets mined from literature reports of differential expression of miRNAs in cancer. This analysis enables identification of SDEmiRNA functional similarity in cell proliferation control across a wide range of cancers, and assembly of common regulatory networks over cancer-related pathways. These findings were validated by construction of a regulatory network in the PI3K pathway. This study provides evidence for the value of further analysis of SDEmiRNAs as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

A novel microRNA signature predicts survival in liver hepatocellular carcinoma after hepatectomy

Liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer. In the current study, genome-wide miRNA-Seq and mRNA profiles in 318 LIHC patients derived from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) were analysed to identify miRNA-based signatures for LIHC prognosis with survival analysis and a semi-supervised principal components (SPC) method. A seven-miRNA signature was confirmed for overall survival (OS) prediction by comparing miRNA profiles in paired primary tumour and solid tumour normal tissues. Thereafter, a linear prognostic model that consisted of seven miRNAs was established and used to divide patients into high- and low-risk groups according to prognostic scores. Subsequent Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that the seven-miRNA signature correlated with a good predictive clinical outcome for 5-year survival in LIHC patients. Additionally, this miRNA-based prognostic model could also be used for OS prognosis of LIHC patients in early stages, which could guide the future therapy of those patients and promote the OS rate. Moreover, the seven-miRNA signature was an independent prognostic factor. In conclusion, this signature may serve as a prognostic biomarker and guide LIHC therapy, and it could even be used as an LIHC therapeutic target in the future.

Elevated heparanase expression is associated with poor prognosis in breast cancer: a study based on systematic review and TCGA data

Heparanase promotes tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Here, we conducted a study based on systematic review and the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data that examined heparanase expression in clinical samples to determine its prognostic value. According to the meta-analysis and TCGA data, we found that heparanase expression was up-regulated in most breast cancer specimens, and elevated heparanase expression was associated with increased lymph node metastasis, larger tumor size, higher histological grade, and poor survival. These results suggest that targeting heparanase might improve treatments for breast cancer patients.

Gene silencing of heparanase results in suppression of invasion and migration of gallbladder carcinoma cells

This study investigated the effect of transcriptional gene silencing of the heparanase gene on standard gallbladder carcinoma cells (GBC-SD). The miRNAs targeting the promoter region and coding region of the heparanase gene were designed and synthesized. We transfected four recombinant miRNA vectors into GBC-SD. We performed the wound healing assays and invasion assays. The result shows that the heparanase expression was significantly decreased by recombinant vectors in transfected GBC-SD cells (p < 0.01), of which pmiR-Hpa-2 showed best interference effect (p < 0.05). The penetrated and migrating cells numbers and adherence rate of GBC-SD cells were significantly decreased by pmiR-Hpa-2 (p < 0.05).

Loss of miR-1258 contributes to carcinogenesis and progression of liver cancer through targeting CDC28 protein kinase regulatory subunit 1B

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the leading cause of cancer related death worldwide. The number of deaths is proportional to the global incidence, which highlights the aggressive tumor biology and lack of effective therapies. Dysregulation of microRNAs has been implicated in carcinogenesis and progression of liver cancer. Here, we identified that miR-1258 was significantly downregulated in HCC and associated with poor patients' survival. Overexpression of miR-1258 significantly inhibits liver cancer cell growth, proliferation and tumorigenicity through increasing cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase and promotes cell apoptosis. Interestingly, stable overexpression of miR-1258 suppresses cell migration, stemness and increases sensitivity of HCC cells to chemotherapy drug like doxorubicin. The CDC28 protein kinase regulatory subunit 1B (CKS1B) was identified as a functional downstream target of miR-1258. Re-expression of CKS1B overcomes miR-1258 induced apoptosis and increases stemness of HCC cells, suggesting that loss of miR-1258 contributes to carcinogenesis and progression of liver cancer through targeting CKS1B. Therefore, loss of miR-1258 may be a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker and blocking miR-1258-CKS1B axis is a potential therapeutic strategy in HCC.

Therapeutic impacts of microRNAs in breast cancer by their roles in regulating processes involved in this disease

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women around the world. So far, many attempts have been made to treat this disease, but few effective treatments have been discovered. In this work, we reviewed the related articles in the limited period of time, 2000-2016, through search in PubMed, Scopus database, Google Scholar, and psychology and psychiatry literature (PsycINFO). We selected the articles about the correlation of microRNAs (miRNAs) and breast cancer in the insight into therapeutic applicability from mentioned genetics research databases. The miRNAs as an effective therapy for breast cancer was at the center of our attention. Hormone therapy and chemotherapy are two major methods that are being used frequently in breast cancer treatment. In the search for an effective therapy for breast cancer, miRNAs suggest a promising method of treatment. miRNAs are small, noncoding RNAs that can turn genes on or off and can have critical roles in cancer treatment; therefore, in the near future, usage of these biological molecules in breast cancer treatment can be considered a weapon against most common cancer-related concerns in women. Here, we discuss miRNAs and their roles in various aspects of breast cancer treatment to help find an alternative and effective way to treat or even cure this preventable disease.

Prediction of miRNA-disease Associations using an Evolutionary Tuned Latent Semantic Analysis

MicroRNAs, small non-coding elements implied in gene regulation, are very interesting biomarkers for various diseases such as cancers. They represent potential prodigious biotechnologies for early diagnosis and gene therapies. However, experimental verification of microRNA-disease associations are time-consuming and costly, so that computational modeling is a proper solution. Previously, we designed MiRAI, a predictive method based on distributional semantics, to identify new associations between microRNA molecules and human diseases. Our preliminary results showed very good prediction scores compared to other available methods. However, MiRAI performances depend on numerous parameters that cannot be tuned manually. In this study, a parallel evolutionary algorithm is proposed for finding an optimal configuration of our predictive method. The automatically parametrized version of MiRAI achieved excellent performance. It highlighted new miRNA-disease associations, especially the potential implication of mir-188 and mir-795 in various diseases. In addition, our method allowed to detect several putative false associations contained in the reference database.

Gubenyiliu II Inhibits Breast Tumor Growth and Metastasis Associated with Decreased Heparanase Expression and Phosphorylation of ERK and AKT Pathways

Gubenyiliu II (GYII), a Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) formula used in our hospital, has shown beneficial effects in cancer patients. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of GYII on murine breast cancer models. GYII showed significant inhibitory effects on tumor growth and metastasis in the murine breast cancer model. Additionally, GYII suppressed the proliferation of 4T1 and MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. A better inhibitory effect on 4T1 cell proliferation and migration was found in the decomposed recipes (DR) of GYII. Moreover, heparanase expression and the degree of angiogenesis were reduced in tumor tissues. Western blot analysis showed decreased expression of heparanase and growth factors in the cells treated with GYII and its decomposed recipes (DR2 and DR3), and thereby a reduction in the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and serine-threonine kinase (AKT). These results suggest that GYII exerts anti-tumor growth and anti-metastatic effects in the murine breast cancer model. The anti-tumor activity of GYII and its decomposed recipes is, at least partly, associated with decreased heparanase and growth factor expression, which subsequently suppressed the activation of the ERK and AKT pathways.

Heparanase overexpression down-regulates syndecan-1 expression in a gallbladder carcinoma cell line

Objective

To discuss the relevance of heparanase and syndecan-1 and regulation of the heparanase-syndecan1 axis in the invasiveness of gallbladder carcinoma cells.

Methods

1. Generation of a gallbladder cancer cell line overexpressing a heparanase (GBD-SD) transgene. 2. Western blot analysis of syndecan-1 levels of GBD-SD and control gallbladder carcinoma (GBC-SD) cells. 3. RT-PCR analysis of syndecan-1 mRNA levels of GBD-SD and GBC-SD. 4. Evaluation of invasion and migration of GBD-SD and GBC-SD cells.

Results

1. Heparanase expression in GBD-SD cells was significantly increased. 2. The syndecan-1 mRNA level of GBD-SD cells was significantly lower compared with that of GBC-SD cells. 3. The syndecan-1 DNA copy number in GBD-SD cells was significantly lower compared with that of GBC-SD. 4. The invasiveness and migration of GBD-SD cells were significantly higher compared with GBC-SD cells.

Conclusions

1. The expression of heparanase negatively correlated with that of syndecan-1 in a gallbladder carcinoma cell line. 2. The expression of heparanase and syndecan-1 in gallbladder carcinomas negatively correlated, similar to other tumours. 3. The heparanase/syndecan1 axis in gallbladder carcinoma plays an important role in the invasion and metastasis, thus providing a new therapeutic target. 4. Further research is required to identify the detailed mechanisms.

Circulating MicroRNAs in Cancer

It is believed that microRNAs have potential as circulating biomarkers of disease; however, successful clinical implementation remains a challenge. This chapter highlights broad variations in approaches to microRNA analysis where whole blood, serum and plasma have each been employed as viable sources. Further discrepancies in approaches are seen in endogenous controls and extraction methods utilized. This has resulted in contradictory publications, even when the same microRNA is targeted in the same disease setting.Analysis of blood samples highlighted the impact of both collection method and storage, on the microRNA profile. Analysis of a panel of microRNAs across whole blood, serum, and plasma originating from the same individual emphasized the impact of starting material on microRNA profile. This is a highly topical field of research with immense potential for translation into the clinical setting. Standardization of sample harvesting, processing and analysis will be key to this translation. Methods of sample harvesting, preservation, and analysis are outlined, with important mitigating factors highlighted.

Construction of an initial microRNA regulation network in breast invasive carcinoma by bioinformatics analysis

INTRODUCTION

microRNAs (miRNA) are involved in many biological processes. They repress target gene expression and play a vital role in breast invasive carcinoma (BRCA). Although many miRNAs are identified to be aberrantly expressed in BRCA and deemed as tumor markers, only sporadic individual studies report their target genes and the pathways involved.

METHODS

miRNA and mRNA expression data were collected from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) pilot project. Aberrantly expressed miRNAs and mRNAs in BRCA were identified by comparing tumor samples with normal adjacent tissues. Differentially expressed miRNAs and mRNAs in different breast cancer subtypes were also analyzed. miRNA/target correlations were predicted by calculating the spearman correlation coefficients between miRNA and mRNA, and validated by luciferase assay.

RESULTS

31 up-regulated miRNAs, 37 down-regulated miRNAs, 1105 up-regulated mRNAs and 1222 down-regulated mRNAs were identified in BRCA; 125 miRNA/target correlations were predicted, 6 of them were validated. In addition, we also found 9 miRNAs and 143 mRNAs differently expressed between estrogen receptor positive and negative breast cancers, and 4 miRNAs and 46 mRNAs differently expressed between progesterone receptor positive and negative breast cancers. Twelve miRNA/target correlations determined the breast cancer subtypes.

CONCLUSION

We developed a new systematic analytic method for analyzing TCGA database, which took into account both miRNA and mRNA data to dissect the miRNA regulation network in BRCA.

High expression levels of miR-21 and miR-210 predict unfavorable survival in breast cancer: a systemic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been emerging as valuable prognostic biomarkers of breast cancer. We therefore summarized recent research into miRNAs involved in human breast cancer and, further, completed a meta-analysis to predict the role of specific miRNAs in the survival of breast cancer patients.

METHODS

Studies were identified by searching PubMed, Embase and Web of Science. Descriptive characteristics for studies were described, and an additional meta-analysis for specific miRNAs was performed. Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 41 articles including 27 types of miRNAs were found regarding prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer survival, of which, micRNA-21 (miR-21) was the most-studied specific miRNA that appeared repeatedly among the selected classifiers. For the studies evaluating miR-21's association with clinical outcomes, the median HR in the studies was 2.32 (interquartile range [IQR] = 1.04-3.40), and the pooled HR suggested that high expression of miR-21 has a negative impact on overall survival (OS; HR = 1.46, 95% CI, 1.25-1.70; p<0.05) and disease/recurrence-free survival in breast cancer (HR = 1.49, 95% CI, 1.17-1.90; p<0.01). We also found that higher expression levels of miR-210 significantly predicted poorer outcome, with median HR in the reported studies of 4.07 (IQR = 1.54-4.43) and a pooled HR of 2.94 (95% CI, 2.08-4.17; p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that miRNAs show promising associations with prognosis in breast cancer. Moreover, specific miRNAs such as miR-21 and miR-210 can predict poor survival rates in breast cancer patients.

Glycosaminoglycans affect heparanase location in CHO cell lines

Glycosaminoglycans (GAG) play a ubiquitous role in tissues and cells. In eukaryotic cells, heparan sulfate (HS) is initially degraded by an endo-β-glucuronidase called heparanase-1 (HPSE). HS oligosaccharides generated by the action of HPSE intensify the activity of signaling molecules, activating inflammatory response, tumor metastasis, and angiogenesis. The aim of the present study was to understand if sulfated GAG could modulate HPSE, since the mechanisms that regulate HPSE have not been completely defined. CHO-K1 cells were treated with 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU) and sodium chlorate, to promote total inhibition of GAG synthesis, and reduce the sulfation pattern, respectively. The GAG profile of the wild CHO-K1 cells and CHO-745, deficient in xylosyltransferase, was determined after [(35)S]-sulfate labeling. HPSE expression was determined via real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Total ablation of GAG with 4-MU in CHO-K1 inhibited HPSE expression, while the lack of sulfation had no effect. Interestingly, 4-MU had no effect in CHO-745 cells for these assays. In addition, a different enzyme location was observed in CHO-K1 wild-type cells, which presents HPSE mainly in the extracellular matrix, in comparison with the CHO-745 mutant cells, which is found in the cytoplasm. In view of our results, we can conclude that GAG are essential modulators of HPSE expression and location. Therefore, GAG profile could impact cell behavior mediated by the regulation of HPSE.

Insights into the key roles of proteoglycans in breast cancer biology and translational medicine

Proteoglycans control numerous normal and pathological processes, among which are morphogenesis, tissue repair, inflammation, vascularization and cancer metastasis. During tumor development and growth, proteoglycan expression is markedly modified in the tumor microenvironment. Altered expression of proteoglycans on tumor and stromal cell membranes affects cancer cell signaling, growth and survival, cell adhesion, migration and angiogenesis. Despite the high complexity and heterogeneity of breast cancer, the rapid evolution in our knowledge that proteoglycans are among the key players in the breast tumor microenvironment suggests their potential as pharmacological targets in this type of cancer. It has been recently suggested that pharmacological treatment may target proteoglycan metabolism, their utilization as targets for immunotherapy or their direct use as therapeutic agents. The diversity inherent in the proteoglycans that will be presented herein provides the potential for multiple layers of regulation of breast tumor behavior. This review summarizes recent developments concerning the biology of selected proteoglycans in breast cancer, and presents potential targeted therapeutic approaches based on their novel key roles in breast cancer.

Critical analysis of the potential for microRNA biomarkers in breast cancer management

Breast cancer is a complex and heterogeneous disease. Signaling by estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and/or human EGF-like receptor 2 (HER2) is a main driver in the development and progression of a large majority of breast tumors. Molecular characterization of primary tumors has identified major subtypes that correlate with ER/PR/HER2 status, and also subgroup divisions that indicate other molecular and cellular features of the tumors. While some of these research findings have been incorporated into clinical practice, several challenges remain to improve breast cancer management and patient survival, for which the integration of novel biomarkers into current practice should be beneficial. microRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short non-coding regulatory RNAs with an etiological contribution to breast carcinogenesis. miRNA-based diagnostic and therapeutic applications are rapidly emerging as novel potential approaches to manage and treat breast cancer. Rapid technological development enables specific and sensitive detection of individual miRNAs or the entire miRNome in tissues, blood, and other biological specimens from breast cancer patients. This review focuses on recent miRNA research and its potential to address unmet clinical needs and challenges. The four sections presented discuss miRNA findings in the context of the following clinical challenges: biomarkers for early detection; prognostic and predictive biomarkers for treatment decisions using targeted therapies against ER and HER2; diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for subgrouping of triple-negative breast cancer, for which there are currently no targeted therapies; and biomarkers for monitoring and characterization of metastatic breast cancer. The review concludes with a critical analysis of the current state of miRNA breast cancer research and the need for further studies using large patient cohorts under well-controlled conditions before considering the clinical implementation of miRNA biomarkers.

Expressions of heparanase and upstream stimulatory factor in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

The expression of heparanase (HPSE) was associated with postoperative metastatic recurrence in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The six E-box binding sites in the core promoter of the HPSE gene suggested that transcription factors of E-box such as upstream stimulatory factor (USF) might regulate the transcription of the HPSE gene. The aim of our study is to measure the levels of HPSE and USF expression and investigate the relationship between USF expression and clinicopathological parameters in patients with HCC.

Methods

HPSE, USF1 and USF2 expressions in human HCC cell lines (BEL-7402, HepG2 and HCCLM3) and 15 fresh human HCC tissue samples were measured by real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR and Western blot analysis. The normal liver cell line QSG7701 or fresh normal liver tissue samples obtained from 15 additional surgical patients with hepatic rupture was used as a control. The protein expressions were determined by immunohistochemistry in paraffin-embedded human HCC tissues and corresponding non-neoplastic tumor surrounding tissues (NTST) of 57 patients.

Results

HPSE, USF1 and USF2 mRNA expressions were increased in HCC cell lines and HCC tissues compared with normal liver cell line and normal liver tissue. The protein expressions of HPSE, USF1 and USF2 in HCC cell lines and HCC tissues were also increased. Both USF1 and USF2 expressions were positively correlated with HPSE. USF1 and USF2 expressions were increased in patients with liver cirrhosis, worse tissue differentiation, advanced HCC stages and metastatic recurrence.

Conclusions

Increased USF in HCC is associated with HPSE expression. USF might be an important factor in regulating HPSE expression and act as a novel marker of metastatic recurrence of HCC patients.

The Role of Heparanase and Sulfatases in the Modification of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans within the Tumor Microenvironment and Opportunities for Novel Cancer Therapeutics

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are an integral and dynamic part of normal tissue architecture at the cell surface and within the extracellular matrix. The modification of HSPGs in the tumor microenvironment is known to result not just in structural but also functional consequences, which significantly impact cancer progression. As substrates for the key enzymes sulfatases and heparanase, the modification of HSPGs is typically characterized by the degradation of heparan sulfate (HS) chains/sulfation patterns via the endo-6-O-sulfatases (Sulf1 and Sulf2) or by heparanase, an endo-glycosidase that cleaves the HS polymers releasing smaller fragments from HSPG complexes. Numerous studies have demonstrated how these enzymes actively influence cancer cell proliferation, signaling, invasion, and metastasis. The activity or expression of these enzymes has been reported to be modified in a variety of cancers. Such observations are consistent with the degradation of normal architecture and basement membranes, which are typically compromised in metastatic disease. Moreover, recent studies elucidating the requirements for these proteins in tumor initiation and progression exemplify their importance in the development and progression of cancer. Thus, as the influence of the tumor microenvironment in cancer progression becomes more apparent, the focus on targeting enzymes that degrade HSPGs highlights one approach to maintain normal tissue architecture, inhibit tumor progression, and block metastasis. This review discusses the role of these enzymes in the context of the tumor microenvironment and their promise as therapeutic targets for the treatment of cancer.

Expression and correlation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and heparanase in patients with breast cancer

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and heparanase (HPSE) are thought to be involved in tumor progression and metastasis. However, up to now, there are no studies that simultaneously investigated the expression levels of MMP-9 and HPSE in tumor tissue and serum of breast cancer patients. Their correlation in breast cancer pathological processes is unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression profile of MMP-9 and HPSE in breast cancer and to assess their clinicopathological significance. We measured serum MMP-9 and HPSE by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in healthy women, and in patients with benign and malignant breast disease. We also evaluated the expression of MMP-9 and HPSE protein in paraffin-embedded tumor tissues by immunohistochemistry. We then correlated serum and tissue levels of MMP-9 and HPSE in breast cancer samples and their expression with patients' clinicopathologic characteristics. We found that serum levels of MMP-9 and HPSE were significantly higher in breast cancer patients than in benign breast disease and in healthy controls (P = 0.001). There was positive correlation between MMP-9 and HPSE in breast cancer patients. The tissue and serum levels of MMP-9 were associated with histology grade, lymph node status, pathological stage, and lymphovascular invasion (all P < 0.05). The tissue levels of MMP-9 were also associated with ER (P = 0.038) and Ki-67 (P = 0.032). The tissue and serum levels of HPSE expression were associated with tumor size, histology grade, lymph node status, and pathological stage (all P < 0.05). Our findings suggested that MMP-9 and HPSE might further be evaluated as biomarkers for predicting progression and prognosis of breast cancer.

MicroRNA-dependent targeting of the extracellular matrix as a mechanism of regulating cell behavior

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs are small noncoding RNAs which regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level by inducing mRNA degradation or translational repression. MicroRNA-dependent modulation of the extracellular matrix and its cellular receptors has emerged as a novel mechanism of regulating numerous matrix-dependent processes, including cell proliferation and apoptosis, cell adhesion and migration, cell differentiation and stem cell properties.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

In this review, we will present different mechanisms by which microRNAs and extracellular matrix constituents mutually regulate their expression, and we will demonstrate how these expression changes affect cell behavior. We will also highlight the importance of dysregulated matrix-related microRNA expression for the pathogenesis of inflammatory and malignant disease, and discuss the potential for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

MicroRNAs and matrix-dependent signal transduction processes form novel regulatory circuits, which profoundly affect cell behavior. As misexpression of microRNAs targeting extracellular matrix constituents is observed in a variety of diseases, a pharmacological intervention with these processes has therapeutic potential, as successfully demonstrated in vitro and in advanced animal models. However, a deeper mechanistic understanding is required to address potential side effects prior to clinical applications in humans.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

A full understanding of the role and function of microRNA-dependent regulation of the extracellular matrix may lead to new targeted therapies and new diagnostics for malignant and inflammatory diseases in humans. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Matrix-mediated cell behaviour and properties.