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Cornwell T, Novotny R, Finley JM. Associations between asymmetry and reactive balance control during split-belt walking. J Biomech 2024; 172:112221. [PMID: 38972274 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2024.112221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
The adaptive control of walking is often studied on a split-belt treadmill, where people gradually reduce their step length asymmetries (SLAs) by modulating foot placement and timing. Although it is proposed that this adaptation may be driven in part by a desire to reduce instability, it is unknown if changes in asymmetry impact people's ability to maintain balance in response to destabilizing perturbations. Here, we used intermittent perturbations to determine if changes in SLA affect reactive balance control as measured by whole-body angular momentum (WBAM) in the sagittal and frontal planes. Sixteen neurotypical older adults (70.0 ± 5.3 years old; 6 males) walked on a treadmill at a 2:1 belt speed ratio with real-time visual feedback of their achieved and target step lengths. We used mixed-effects models to determine if there were associations between SLA or foot placement and WBAM during the applied perturbations. Walking with more positive SLAs was associated with small reductions in forward WBAM (p < 0.001 for fast and slow belts) but increased lateral WBAM (p = 0.045 for fast belt; p = 0.003 for slow belt) during perturbations. When participants walked with more positive SLAs, they shortened their foot placement on the slow belt, and this shortening was associated with moderate reductions in forward WBAM (p < 0.001) and small increases in lateral WBAM (p = 0.008) during slow-belt perturbations. Our findings suggest that spatiotemporal changes that occur during split-belt treadmill walking may improve sagittal-plane stability by reducing people's susceptibility to losses of balance, but this may come at the expense of frontal-plane stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara Cornwell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Ryan Novotny
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - James M Finley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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2
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Jain S, Schweighofer N, Finley JM. Aberrant decision-making as a risk factor for falls in aging. Front Aging Neurosci 2024; 16:1384242. [PMID: 38979111 PMCID: PMC11229407 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2024.1384242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Neuromotor impairments resulting from natural aging and aging-related diseases are often accompanied by a heightened prevalence of falls and fall-related injuries. Conventionally, the study of factors contributing to falls focuses on intrinsic characteristics, such as sensorimotor processing delays and weakness, and extrinsic factors, such as environmental obstacles. However, the impact of these factors only becomes evident in response to people's decisions about how and where they will move in their environment. This decision-making process can be considered a behavioral risk factor, and it influences the extent to which a person engages in activities that place them near the limits of their capacity. While there are readily available tools for assessing intrinsic and extrinsic fall risk, our understanding of how to assess behavioral risk is limited. Measuring behavioral risk requires a systematic assessment of how people make decisions when walking in complex environments and how these decisions relate to their functional capacity. We propose that experimental methods and computational models derived from behavioral economics can stimulate the development of such assessments. Behavioral economics relies on theoretical models and empirical studies to characterize the factors that influence how people make decisions under risky conditions where a given decision can have variable outcomes. Applying a behavioral economic approach to walking can provide insight into how internal assessment of one's fall risk influences the tasks that one is willing to perform. Ultimately, these assessments will allow us to identify people who make choices that increase their likelihood of fall-related injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreya Jain
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Nicolas Schweighofer
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - James M. Finley
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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3
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Liu C, Valero-Cuevas FJ, Finley JM. Generalizability of foot placement control strategies during unperturbed and perturbed gait. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:231210. [PMID: 38699553 PMCID: PMC11061641 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Control of foot placement is an essential strategy for maintaining balance during walking. During unperturbed, steady-state walking, foot placement can be accurately described as a linear function of the body's centre of mass (CoM) state at midstance. However, it is uncertain if this mapping from CoM state to foot placement generalizes to larger perturbations that could potentially cause falls. Recovery from these perturbations may require reactive control strategies not observed during unperturbed walking. Here, we used unpredictable changes in treadmill belt speed to assess the generalizability of foot placement mappings identified during unperturbed walking. We found that foot placement mappings generalized poorly from unperturbed to perturbed walking and differed for forward perturbation versus backward perturbation. We also used the singular value decomposition of the mapping matrix to reveal that people were more sensitive to backward versus forward perturbations. Together, these results indicate that a single linear mapping cannot describe the foot placement control during both forward and backward losses of balance induced by treadmill belt speed perturbations. Better characterization of human balance control strategies could improve our understanding of why different neuromotor disorders result in heightened fall risk and inform the design of controllers for balance-assisting devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Francisco J. Valero-Cuevas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - James M. Finley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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4
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Curtze C, Buurke TJW, McCrum C. Notes on the margin of stability. J Biomech 2024; 166:112045. [PMID: 38484652 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2024.112045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
The concept of the 'extrapolated center of mass (XcoM)', introduced by Hof et al., (2005, J. Biomechanics 38 (1), p. 1-8), extends the classical inverted pendulum model to dynamic situations. The vector quantity XcoM combines the center of mass position plus its velocity divided by the pendulum eigenfrequency. In this concept, the margin of stability (MoS), i.e., the minimum signed distance from the XcoM to the boundaries of the base of support was proposed as a measure of dynamic stability. Here we describe the conceptual evolution of the XcoM, discuss key considerations in the estimation of the XcoM and MoS, and provide a critical perspective on the interpretation of the MoS as a measure of instantaneous mechanical stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Curtze
- University of Nebraska at Omaha, Department of Biomechanics, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Tom J W Buurke
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, the Netherlands; Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Christopher McCrum
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, the Netherlands; Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Neurorehabilitation Research Group, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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5
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Liu C, Valero-Cuevas FJ, Finley JM. Generalizability of foot-placement control strategies during unperturbed and perturbed gait. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.10.548298. [PMID: 37502841 PMCID: PMC10369853 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.10.548298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Control of foot placement is an essential strategy for maintaining balance during walking. During unperturbed, steady-state walking, foot placement can be accurately described as a linear function of the body's center of mass state at midstance. However, it is uncertain if this mapping from center of mass state to foot placement generalizes to larger perturbations that may be more likely to cause falls. These perturbations may cause balance disturbances and generate reactive control strategies not observed during unperturbed walking. Here, we used unpredictable changes in treadmill speed to assess the generalizability of foot placement mappings identified during unperturbed walking. We found that foot placement mappings generalized poorly from unperturbed to perturbed walking and differed for forward versus backward perturbations. We also used singular value decomposition of the mapping matrix to reveal that people were more sensitive to backward versus forward perturbations. Together, these results indicate that control of foot placement during losses of balance differs from the control strategies used during unperturbed walking. Better characterization of human balance control strategies could improve our understanding of why different neuromotor disorders result in heightened fall risk and inform the design of controllers for balance-assisting devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Francisco J. Valero-Cuevas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - James M. Finley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
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Prasad R, El-Rich M, Awad MI, Agrawal SK, Khalaf K. Bi-Planar Trajectory Tracking with a Novel 3DOF Cable Driven Lower Limb Rehabilitation Exoskeleton (C-LREX). SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:1677. [PMID: 36772715 PMCID: PMC9920627 DOI: 10.3390/s23031677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Although Cable-driven rehabilitation devices (CDRDs) have several advantages over traditional link-driven devices, including their light weight, ease of reconfiguration, and remote actuation, the majority of existing lower-limb CDRDs are limited to rehabilitation in the sagittal plane. In this work, we proposed a novel three degrees of freedom (DOF) lower limb model which accommodates hip abduction/adduction motion in the frontal plane, as well as knee and hip flexion/extension in the sagittal plane. The proposed model was employed to investigate the feasibility of using bi-planar cable routing to track a bi-planar reference healthy trajectory. Various possible routings of four cable configurations were selected and studied with the 3DOF model. The optimal locations of the hip cuffs were determined using optimization. When compared with the five-cable routing configuration, the four-cable routing produced higher joint forces, which motivated the future study of other potential cable routing configurations and their ability to track bi-planar motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajan Prasad
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Marwan El-Rich
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
- Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center, Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohammad I. Awad
- Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center, Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
- Khalifa University Center for Autonomous Robotic Systems (KUCARS), Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sunil K. Agrawal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Rehabilitation and Regenerative Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Kinda Khalaf
- Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center, Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science Technology & Research, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 127788, United Arab Emirates
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Liu C, McNitt-Gray JL, Finley JM. Impairments in the mechanical effectiveness of reactive balance control strategies during walking in people post-stroke. Front Neurol 2022; 13:1032417. [PMID: 36388197 PMCID: PMC9659909 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.1032417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
People post-stroke have an increased risk of falls compared to neurotypical individuals, partly resulting from an inability to generate appropriate reactions to restore balance. However, few studies investigated the effect of paretic deficits on the mechanics of reactive control strategies following forward losses of balance during walking. Here, we characterized the biomechanical consequences of reactive control strategies following perturbations induced by the treadmill belt accelerations. Thirty-eight post-stroke participants and thirteen age-matched and speed-matched neurotypical participants walked on a dual-belt treadmill while receiving perturbations that induced a forward loss of balance. We computed whole-body angular momentum and angular impulse using segment kinematics and reaction forces to quantify the effect of impulse generation by both the leading and trailing limbs in response to perturbations in the sagittal plane. We found that perturbations to the paretic limb led to larger increases in forward angular momentum during the perturbation step than perturbations to the non-paretic limb or to neurotypical individuals. To recover from the forward loss of balance, neurotypical individuals coordinated reaction forces generated by both legs to decrease the forward angular impulse relative to the pre-perturbation step. They first decreased the forward pitch angular impulse during the perturbation step. Then, during the first recovery step, they increased the backward angular impulse by the leading limb and decreased the forward angular impulse by the trailing limb. In contrast to neurotypical participants, people post-stroke did not reduce the forward angular impulse generated by the stance limb during the perturbed step. They also did not increase leading limb angular impulse or decrease the forward trailing limb angular impulse using their paretic limb during the first recovery step. Lastly, post-stroke individuals who scored poorer on clinical assessments of balance and had greater motor impairment made less use of the paretic limb to reduce forward momentum. Overall, these results suggest that paretic deficits limit the ability to recover from forward loss of balance. Future perturbation-based balance training targeting reactive stepping response in stroke populations may benefit from improving the ability to modulate paretic ground reaction forces to better control whole-body dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States,*Correspondence: Chang Liu
| | - Jill L. McNitt-Gray
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States,Department of Biological Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - James M. Finley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States,Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States,James M. Finley
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Liu C, Park S, Finley J. The choice of reference point for computing sagittal plane angular momentum affects inferences about dynamic balance. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13371. [PMID: 35582618 PMCID: PMC9107787 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Measures of whole-body angular momentum in the sagittal plane are commonly used to characterize dynamic balance during human walking. To compute angular momentum, one must specify a reference point about which momentum is calculated. Although biomechanists primarily compute angular momentum about the center of mass (CoM), momentum-based controllers for humanoid robots often use the center of pressure. Here, we asked if the choice of the reference point influences interpretations of how dynamic balance is controlled in the sagittal plane during perturbed walking. Methods Eleven healthy young individuals walked on a dual-belt treadmill at their self-selected speed. Balance disturbances were generated by treadmill accelerations of varying magnitudes and directions. We computed angular momentum about two reference points: (1) the CoM or (2) the leading edge of the base of support and then projected it along the mediolateral axes that pass through either of the reference points as the sagittal plane angular momentum. We also performed principal component analysis to determine if the choice of reference point influences our interpretations of how intersegmental coordination patterns contribute to perturbation recovery. Results We found that the peak angular momentum was correlated with perturbation amplitude and the slope of this relationship did not differ between reference points. One advantage of using a reference point at the CoM is that one can easily determine how the momenta from contralateral limbs, such as the left and right legs, offset one another to regulate the whole-body angular momentum. Alternatively, analysis of coordination patterns referenced to the leading edge of the base of support may provide more insight into the inverted-pendulum dynamics of walking during responses to sudden losses of balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Sungwoo Park
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States of America
| | - James Finley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America,Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
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Li J, Huang HJ. Small directional treadmill perturbations induce differential gait stability adaptation. J Neurophysiol 2022; 127:38-55. [PMID: 34851745 PMCID: PMC8721900 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00091.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Introducing unexpected perturbations to challenge gait stability is an effective
approach to investigate balance control strategies. Little is known about the
extent to which people can respond to small perturbations during walking. This
study aimed to determine how subjects adapted gait stability to multidirectional
perturbations with small magnitudes applied on a stride-by-stride basis. Ten
healthy young subjects walked on a treadmill that either briefly decelerated
belt speed (“stick”), accelerated belt speed
(“slip”), or shifted the platform medial-laterally at right leg
mid-stance. We quantified gait stability adaptation in both anterior-posterior
and medial-lateral directions using margin of stability and its components, base
of support, and extrapolated center of mass. Gait stability was disrupted upon
initially experiencing the small perturbations as margin of stability decreased
in the stick, slip, and medial shift perturbations and increased in the lateral
shift perturbation. Gait stability metrics were generally disrupted more for
perturbations in the coincident direction. Subjects employed both feedback and
feedforward strategies in response to the small perturbations, but mostly used
feedback strategies during adaptation. Subjects primarily used base of support
(foot placement) control in the lateral shift perturbation and extrapolated
center of mass control in the slip and medial shift perturbations. These
findings provide new knowledge about the extent of gait stability adaptation to
small magnitude perturbations applied on a stride-by-stride basis and reveal
potential new approaches for balance training interventions to target foot
placement and center of mass control. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Little is known about if and how humans can
adapt to small magnitude perturbations experienced on a stride-by-stride basis
during walking. Here, we show that even small perturbations disrupted gait
stability and that subjects could still adapt their reactive balance control.
Depending on the perturbation direction, subjects might prefer adjusting their
foot placement over their center of mass and vice versa. These findings could
help potentially tune balance training to target specific aspects of
balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinfeng Li
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
| | - Helen J Huang
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.,Disability, Aging, and Technology (DAT) Cluster, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.,Bionic Materials, Implants, and Interfaces (Biionix) Cluster, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
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Buurke TJW, den Otter R. The relationship between the anteroposterior and mediolateral margins of stability in able-bodied human walking. Gait Posture 2021; 90:80-85. [PMID: 34419915 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2021.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Control of dynamic balance in human walking is essential to remain stable and can be parameterized by the margins of stability. While frontal and sagittal plane margins of stability are often studied in parallel, they may covary, where increased stability in one plane could lead to decreased stability in the other. Hypothetically, this negative covariation may lead to critically low lateral stability during step lengthening. RESEARCH QUESTION Is there a relationship between frontal and sagittal plane margins of stability in able-bodied humans, during normal walking and imposed step lengthening? METHODS Fifteen able-bodied adults walked on an instrumented treadmill in a normal walking and a step lengthening condition. During step lengthening, stepping targets were projected onto the treadmill in front of the participant to impose longer step lengths. Covariation between frontal and sagittal plane margins of stability was assessed with linear mixed-effects models for normal walking and step lengthening separately. RESULTS We found a negative covariation between frontal and sagittal plane margins of stability during normal walking, but not during step lengthening. SIGNIFICANCE These results indicate that while a decrease in anterior instability may lead to a decrease in lateral stability during normal walking, able-bodied humans can prevent lateral instability due to this covariation in critical situations, such as step lengthening. These findings improve our understanding of adaptive dynamic balance control during walking in able-bodied humans and may be utilized in further research on gait stability in pathological and aging populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom J W Buurke
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, 9713 AV, the Netherlands; Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Rob den Otter
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, 9713 AV, the Netherlands.
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Sanchez N, Schweighofer N, Finley JM. Different Biomechanical Variables Explain Within-Subjects Versus Between-Subjects Variance in Step Length Asymmetry Post-Stroke. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2021; 29:1188-1198. [PMID: 34138713 PMCID: PMC8290879 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2021.3090324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Step length asymmetry (SLA) is common in most stroke survivors. Several studies have shown that factors such as paretic propulsion can explain between-subjects differences in SLA. However, whether the factors that account for between-subjects variance in SLA are consistent with those that account for within-subjects, stride-by-stride variance in SLA has not been determined. SLA direction is heterogeneous, and different impairments likely contribute to differences in SLA direction. Here, we identified common predictors between-subjects that explain within-subjects variance in SLA using sparse partial least squares regression (sPLSR). We determined whether the SLA predictors differ based on SLA direction and whether predictors obtained from within-subjects analyses were the same as those obtained from between-subjects analyses. We found that for participants who walked with longer paretic steps paretic double support time, braking impulse, peak vertical ground reaction force, and peak plantarflexion moment explained 59% of the within-subjects variance in SLA. However the within-subjects variance accounted for by each individual predictor was less than 10%. Peak paretic plantarflexion moment accounted for 4% of the within-subjects variance and 42% of the between-subjects variance in SLA. In participants who walked with shorter paretic steps, paretic and non-paretic braking impulse explained 18% of the within-subjects variance in SLA. Conversely, paretic braking impulse explained 68% of the between-subjects variance in SLA, but the association between SLA and paretic braking impulse was in the opposite direction for within-subjects vs. between-subjects analyses. Thus, the relationships that explain between-subjects variance might not account for within-subjects stride-by-stride variance in SLA.
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