1
|
Borella da Silva TC, Dos Santos DL, Rott MB. First report of free-living amoebae in sewage treatment plants in Porto Alegre, southern Brazil. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:1611-1624. [PMID: 37902214 PMCID: wh_2023_261 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
Free-living amoebae (FLA) are amphizoic protozoans with a cosmopolitan distribution. Some strains of species are associated with infections in humans. They feed on microorganisms by phagocytosis; however, some of these can become endocytobionts by resisting this process and taking shelter inside the amoeba. The whole world is experiencing increasing shortage of water, and sewage is being reused, so the study of this environment is important in public health context. The objective of this work was to identify FLA present in sewage treatment plants in Porto Alegre, Brazil. About 1 L samples were collected from eight stations (raw and treated sewage) in January, February, July, and August 2022. The samples were sown in monoxenic culture, and the isolated amoebae were subjected to morphological and molecular identification. Polymerase chain reaction results indicated the presence of the genus Acanthamoeba in 100% of the samples. Gene sequencing showed the presence of Acanthamoeba lenticulata and Acanthamoeba polyphaga - T5 and T4 genotypes - respectively, which are related to pathogenicity. The environment where the sewage is released can be used in recreational activities, exposing individuals to potential interactions with these amoebae and their potential endocytobionts, which may pose risks to public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thaisla Cristiane Borella da Silva
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Daniel Leal Dos Santos
- Faculty of Geography, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Ipiranga Avenue, N 6681, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul 90619-900, Brazil
| | - Marilise Brittes Rott
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cucina A, Filali S, Risler A, Febvay C, Salmon D, Pivot C, Pelandakis M, Pirot F. Dual 0.02% chlorhexidine digluconate - 0.1% disodium EDTA loaded thermosensitive ocular gel for Acanthamoeba keratitis treatment. Int J Pharm 2019; 556:330-337. [PMID: 30553004 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Poor bioavailability and low residence time limit the efficiency of conventional biguanide-based eye drops against Acanthamoeba keratitis. The aim of this work was to formulate an original anti-amoebic thermoreversible ocular gel combining biguanide and metalloproteases inhibitor - chelating agent. Chlorhexidine digluconate (CHX)-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt (Na2EDTA) were compounded in poloxamer 407 saline solution. 0.02% CHX - 0.1% Na2EDTA loaded thermosensitive ocular gel exhibited appropriate pH (5.73 ± 0.06), iso-osmolality (314 ± 5 mOsm/kg), viscosity (ranged between 15 and 25 mPa.s) and thermal gelation (26.5 °C and 33 °C) properties. Bioadhesion of gel was successfully tested onto isolated bovine eyes as well as the assessment of CHX penetration into the cornea. Intracorneal CHX concentration was found greater than trophozoite minimum amoebicidal concentration and minimal cysticidal concentration after 15-min and 2-h ocular exposure, respectively, while any CHX permeation through the cornea was detected (<51 ng/cm2/h). Improvement of CHX ocular bioavailability was attributed to probable solubilization of tear film lipid layer by poloxamer. In vitro efficiency of CHX-Na2EDTA ocular gel was confirmed from the drastic reduction of trophozoite and cyst survival (to 25% and 2%, respectively), confirming the potential of the multicomponent pharmaceutical material strategy for the treatment of Acanthamoeba keratitis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annamaria Cucina
- Service Pharmaceutique, Plateforme Fripharm, Groupe Hospitalier Centre Edouard Herriot, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 5, Place d'Arsonval, F-69437 Lyon Cedex 03, France; Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Pharmacie Galénique Industrielle, UMR-CNRS 5305, Plateforme Fripharm, ISPB-Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 8, Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon Cedex 08, France
| | - Samira Filali
- Service Pharmaceutique, Plateforme Fripharm, Groupe Hospitalier Centre Edouard Herriot, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 5, Place d'Arsonval, F-69437 Lyon Cedex 03, France; Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Pharmacie Galénique Industrielle, UMR-CNRS 5305, Plateforme Fripharm, ISPB-Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 8, Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon Cedex 08, France
| | - Arnaud Risler
- Laboratoire Lorrain de Chimie Moléculaire, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Lorraine, Boulevard des Aiguillettes, F-54506 Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France
| | - Camille Febvay
- Service d'Ophtalmologie, Groupement Hospitalier Edouard Herriot, 5, Place d'Arsonval, F-69437 Lyon Cedex 03, France
| | - Damien Salmon
- Service Pharmaceutique, Plateforme Fripharm, Groupe Hospitalier Centre Edouard Herriot, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 5, Place d'Arsonval, F-69437 Lyon Cedex 03, France; Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Pharmacie Galénique Industrielle, UMR-CNRS 5305, Plateforme Fripharm, ISPB-Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 8, Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon Cedex 08, France
| | - Christine Pivot
- Service Pharmaceutique, Plateforme Fripharm, Groupe Hospitalier Centre Edouard Herriot, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 5, Place d'Arsonval, F-69437 Lyon Cedex 03, France
| | - Michel Pelandakis
- Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Adaptation et Pathogénie, UMR 5240, ISPB-Faculté de Pharmacie Laboratoire L3, 8, avenue Rockefeller - 69373 Lyon Cedex 08, France
| | - Fabrice Pirot
- Service Pharmaceutique, Plateforme Fripharm, Groupe Hospitalier Centre Edouard Herriot, Hospices Civils de Lyon, 5, Place d'Arsonval, F-69437 Lyon Cedex 03, France; Université de Lyon, Laboratoire de Pharmacie Galénique Industrielle, UMR-CNRS 5305, Plateforme Fripharm, ISPB-Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 8, Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon Cedex 08, France. http://fripharm.com
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Fabres LF, Rosa Dos Santos SP, Benitez LB, Rott MB. Isolation and identification of Acanthamoeba spp. from thermal swimming pools and spas in Southern Brazil. Acta Parasitol 2016; 61:221-7. [PMID: 27078644 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2016-0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Free-living amoebae (FLA) are widely distributed in soil and water. A few number of them are implicated in human disease: Acanthamoeba spp., Naegleria fowleri, Balamuthia mandrillaris and Sappinia diploidea. Species of Acanthamoeba can cause keratitis and brain infections. In this study, 72 water samples were taken from both hot tubs and thermal swimming pools in the city of Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil, to determine the presence of Acanthamoeba in the water as well as perform the phenotypic and genotypic characterization of the isolates. The identification of the isolates was based on the cysts morphology and PCR amplification using genus-specific oligonucleotides. When the isolates were submitted to PCR reaction only 8 were confirmed as belonging to the genus Acanthamoeba. The sequences analysis when compared to the sequences in the GenBank, showed genotype distribution in group T3 (12,5%), T5 (12,5%), T4 (25%) and T15 (50%). The results of this study confirmed the presence of potentially pathogenic isolates of free living amoebae in hot swimming pool and spas which can present risks to human health.
Collapse
|
4
|
Hsu BM. Surveillance and Evaluation of the Infection Risk of Free-Living Amoebae — Acanthamoeba in Aquatic Environments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.7763/ijesd.2016.v7.817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
|
5
|
Kao PM, Hsu BM, Hsu TK, Liu JH, Chang HY, Ji WT, Tzeng KJ, Huang SW, Huang YL. Seasonal distribution of potentially pathogenic Acanthamoeba species from drinking water reservoirs in Taiwan. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:3766-3773. [PMID: 25263419 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3651-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In order to detect the presence/absence of Acanthamoeba along with geographical variations, water quality variations and seasonal change of Acanthamoeba in Taiwan was investigated by 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene TaqMan quantitative real-time PCR. Samples were collected quarterly at 19 drinking water reservoir sites from November 2012 to August 2013. Acanthamoeba was detected in 39.5 % (30/76) of the water sample, and the detection rate was 63.2 % (12/19) from samples collected in autumn. The average concentration of Acanthamoeba was 3.59 × 10(4) copies/L. For geographic distribution, the detection rate for Acanthamoeba at the northern region was higher than the central and southern regions in all seasons. Results of Spearman rank test revealed that heterotrophic plate count (HPC) had a negative correlation (R = -0.502), while dissolved oxygen (DO) had a positive correlation (R = 0.463) in summer. Significant differences were found only between the presence/absence of Acanthamoeba and HPC in summer (Mann-Whitney U test, P < 0.05). T2 and T4 genotypes of Acanthamoeba were identified, and T4 was the most commonly identified Acanthamoeba genotypes. The presence of Acanthamoeba in reservoirs presented a potential public health threat and should be further examined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Min Kao
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Maschio VJ, Chies F, Carlesso AM, Carvalho A, Rosa SP, Van Der Sand ST, Rott MB. Acanthamoeba T4, T5 and T11 Isolated From Mineral Water Bottles in Southern Brazil. Curr Microbiol 2014; 70:6-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-014-0676-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
7
|
Kao PM, Hsu BM, Chen CT, Huang SW, Kao ES, Chen JL, Wu NM, Ji WT. Identification and quantification of the Acanthamoeba species and genotypes from reservoirs in Taiwan by molecular techniques. Acta Trop 2014; 132:45-50. [PMID: 24388954 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2013.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The occurrence of Acanthamoeba was investigated from 21 main reservoirs of Taiwan with 12 (57.1%) testing positive. Analysis of the 18S rRNA gene PCR product was performed in order to identify the Acanthamoeba isolates. Acanthamoeba spp. concentrations were determined according to TaqMan real-time qPCR. Acanthamoeba genotypes of all isolates were identified T4. The species were categorized to Acanthamoeba culbertsoni, Acanthamoeba polyphaga, Acanthamoeba castellanii and Acanthamoeba hatchetti. The concentration of Acanthamoeba spp. in detected positive reservoir water samples was in the range of 3.0-1.8 × 10(3) cells/L. These results highlight the importance of Acanthamoeba in reservoirs of potential pathogens and its possible role in the spread of bacterial genera with interest in public and environmental health.
Collapse
|
8
|
Diversity and seasonal impact of Acanthamoeba species in a subtropical rivershed. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:405794. [PMID: 24490160 PMCID: PMC3891742 DOI: 10.1155/2013/405794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 10/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluated the presence of Acanthamoeba species in the Puzih River watershed, which features typical subtropical monsoon climate and is located just above the Tropic of Cancer in Taiwan. The relationship between the seasonal and geographical distributions of Acanthamoeba species in this rivershed was also investigated. Acanthamoeba species were detected in water samples using the amoebal enrichment culture method and confirmed by PCR. A total of 136 water samples were included in this study, 16 (11.7%) of which contained Acanthamoeba species. Samples with the highest percentage of Acanthamoeba (32.4%) were obtained during the summer season, mainly from upstream areas. The identified species in the four seasons included Acanthamoeba palestinensis (T2), Acanthamoeba sp. IS2/T4 (T4), Acanthamoeba lenticulata (T5), Acanthamoeba hatchetti (T11), Acanthamoeba healyi (T12), and Acanthamoeba jacobsi (T15). The most frequently identified Acanthamoeba genotype was T4 (68.7%). Acanthamoeba genotype T4 is responsible for Acanthamoeba keratitis and should be considered for associated human health risk potential in the rivershed.
Collapse
|
9
|
Kao PM, Tung MC, Hsu BM, Chou MY, Yang HW, She CY, Shen SM. Quantitative detection and identification of Naegleria spp. in various environmental water samples using real-time quantitative PCR assay. Parasitol Res 2013; 112:1467-74. [PMID: 23430358 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-013-3290-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Naegleria spp. is a free-living amoeba that can be found in various aquatic environments. There are some Naegleria spp. that can cause fatal infections in animals and humans, and the most important source of infection is through direct water contact. In this study, a real-time quantitative PCR was developed to detect and quantify the Naegleria spp. in various environmental water samples. The water samples were taken from rivershed, water treatment plants, and thermal spring recreation areas. The total detection rate was 4.0% (7/176) for Naegleria spp. The percentages of samples containing Naegleria spp. from river water, raw drinking water, and thermal spring water were 0% (0/100), 10.7% (3/28) and 8.3% (4/48), respectively. The concentration of Naegleria spp. in detected positive raw drinking water and thermal spring water samples was in the range of 3.9-12.6 and 1.1-24.2 cells/L, respectively. The identified species included Naegleria australiensis, Naegleria lovaniensis, and Naegleria spitzbergeniensis. The presence of Naegleria spp. in various aquatic environments is considered a potential public health threat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Min Kao
- Department of Surgery, Tungs' Taichung MetroHarbor Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kao PM, Tung MC, Hsu BM, Hsueh CJ, Chiu YC, Chen NH, Shen SM, Huang YL. Occurrence and distribution of Naegleria species from thermal spring environments in Taiwan. Lett Appl Microbiol 2012; 56:1-7. [PMID: 23020241 DOI: 10.1111/lam.12006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 09/18/2012] [Accepted: 09/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Naegleria spp. is a free-living amoeba that can be found in the natural environment. A number of Naegleria spp. can cause fatal infections in the central nervous system in humans and animals, and the most important source of infection is through direct water contact. In this study, water samples from various thermal springs were taken from four thermal spring areas. Naegleria spp. was detected via culture confirmation and molecular taxonomic identification. Among the 60 samples obtained, Naegleria spp. was identified in 26 (43·3%) samples. The identified species included Naegleria australiensis, Naegleria gruberi, Naegleria lovaniensis and Naegleria mexicana. The presence of living Naegleria spp. was significantly associated with elevated pH value in the water sample. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY In this study, we examined the presence of living Naegleria spp. in thermal spring waters in south-eastern Taiwan. Naegleria spp. was isolated and culture-confirmed from thermal spring water. Naegleria fowleri was not found in all water samples, and Naegleria australiensis was the most common Naegleria genotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P-M Kao
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung Township, Chiayi County, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kao PM, Hsu BM, Chen NH, Huang KH, Huang CC, Ji DD, Chen JS, Lin WC, Huang SW, Chiu YC. Molecular detection and comparison of Acanthamoeba genotypes in different functions of watersheds in Taiwan. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2012; 184:4335-4344. [PMID: 21800062 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-011-2267-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2011] [Accepted: 07/15/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The protistan genus Acanthamoeba is a free-living amoeba existing in various environments. Within this protistan genus, there are some species recognized as potential human pathogens, which may cause granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, Acanthamoeba keratitis and chronic granulomatous lesions of the skin. In this study, 211 water samples were collected from two watersheds in southern Taiwan. We detected Acanthamoeba based on the PCR amplification with a genus-specific primer pair and investigation of Acanthamoeba in Puzih River and Kaoping River in southern Taiwan. Acanthamoeba species were detected in 34 (16.1%) samples. The presence or absence of Acanthamoeba within the water samples showed significant difference with the levels of water temperature and total coliforms. The most frequently identified Acanthamoeba genotype was T4 (n = 19), followed by T5 (n = 8), and then T15 (n = 3). Genotype T6, T7/T8, T11 and T12 were all detected once. Genotype T4, T5, T6, T11 and T15 of Acanthamoeba are responsible for Acanthamoeba keratitis and should be considered a potential health threat associated with human activities in environmental surface water watersheds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Min Kao
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, National Chung Cheng University, Chia-Yi, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
References. Parasitology 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119968986.refs] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
13
|
Kao PM, Hsu BM, Chen NH, Huang KH, Huang SW, King KL, Chiu YC. Isolation and identification of Acanthamoeba species from thermal spring environments in southern Taiwan. Exp Parasitol 2012; 130:354-8. [PMID: 22366362 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba species are free-living amoebae found in a range of environments. Within this genus, a number of species are recognized as human pathogens, potentially causing Acanthamoeba keratitis, granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, and chronic granulomatous lesions. In this study, 60 water samples were taken from four thermal spring recreation areas in southern Taiwan. We detected living Acanthamoeba spp. based on culture-confirmed detection combined with the molecular taxonomic identification method. Living Acanthamoeba spp. were detected in nine (15%) samples. The presence or absence of Acanthamoeba spp. in the water samples depended significantly on the pH value. The most frequently identified living Acanthamoeba genotype was T15 followed by T4, Acanthamoeba spp., and T2. Genotypes T2, T4, and T15 of Acanthamoeba, are responsible for Acanthamoeba keratitis as well as granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, and should therefore be considered a potential health risk associated with human activities in thermal spring environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Min Kao
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, Taiwan, ROC
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Barratt JLN, Harkness J, Marriott D, Ellis JT, Stark D. Importance of nonenteric protozoan infections in immunocompromised people. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010; 23:795-836. [PMID: 20930074 PMCID: PMC2952979 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00001-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
There are many neglected nonenteric protozoa able to cause serious morbidity and mortality in humans, particularly in the developing world. Diseases caused by certain protozoa are often more severe in the presence of HIV. While information regarding neglected tropical diseases caused by trypanosomatids and Plasmodium is abundant, these protozoa are often not a first consideration in Western countries where they are not endemic. As such, diagnostics may not be available in these regions. Due to global travel and immigration, this has become an increasing problem. Inversely, in certain parts of the world (particularly sub-Saharan Africa), the HIV problem is so severe that diseases like microsporidiosis and toxoplasmosis are common. In Western countries, due to the availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), these diseases are infrequently encountered. While free-living amoebae are rarely encountered in a clinical setting, when infections do occur, they are often fatal. Rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential to the survival of patients infected with these organisms. This paper reviews information on the diagnosis and treatment of nonenteric protozoal diseases in immunocompromised people, with a focus on patients infected with HIV. The nonenteric microsporidia, some trypanosomatids, Toxoplasma spp., Neospora spp., some free-living amoebae, Plasmodium spp., and Babesia spp. are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J L N Barratt
- Department of Microbiology, St. Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst 2010, NSW, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Balamuthia mandrillaris: The multiple nuclei of Balamuthia amebas; their location, activity, and site of development. Exp Parasitol 2010; 126:14-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2009.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2009] [Revised: 10/18/2009] [Accepted: 10/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|