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Todd NPM, Govender S, Keller PE, Colebatch JG. Electrophysiological Activity from the Eye Muscles, Cerebellum and Cerebrum During Reflexive (Classical Pavlovian) Versus Voluntary (Ivanov-Smolensky) Eye-Blink Conditioning. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2024; 23:1086-1100. [PMID: 37840094 PMCID: PMC11102391 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-023-01613-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
We report an experiment to investigate the role of the cerebellum and cerebrum in motor learning of timed movements. Eleven healthy human subjects were recruited to perform two experiments, the first was a classical eye-blink conditioning procedure with an auditory tone as conditional stimulus (CS) and vestibular unconditional stimulus (US) in the form of a double head-tap. In the second experiment, subjects were asked to blink voluntarily in synchrony with the double head-tap US preceded by a CS, a form of Ivanov-Smolensky conditioning in which a command or instruction is associated with the US. Electrophysiological recordings were made of extra-ocular EMG and EOG at infra-ocular sites (IO1/2), EEG from over the frontal eye fields (C3'/C4') and from over the posterior fossa over the cerebellum for the electrocerebellogram (ECeG). The behavioural outcomes of the experiments showed weak reflexive conditioning for the first experiment despite the double tap but robust, well-synchronised voluntary conditioning for the second. Voluntary conditioned blinks were larger than the reflex ones. For the voluntary conditioning experiment, a contingent negative variation (CNV) was also present in the EEG leads prior to movement, and modulation of the high-frequency EEG occurred during movement. US-related cerebellar activity was prominent in the high-frequency ECeG for both experiments, while conditioned response-related cerebellar activity was additionally present in the voluntary conditioning experiment. These results demonstrate a role for the cerebellum in voluntary (Ivanov-Smolensky) as well as in reflexive (classical Pavlovian) conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil P M Todd
- UNSW Clinical School, Randwick Campus, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
- Department of Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QC, UK.
| | - Sendhil Govender
- Neuroscience Research Australia, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Peter E Keller
- MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour and Development, Western Sydney University Penrith, Kingswood, NSW, 2751, Australia
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - James G Colebatch
- UNSW Clinical School, Randwick Campus, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
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Yang B, Intoy J, Rucci M. Eye blinks as a visual processing stage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2310291121. [PMID: 38564641 PMCID: PMC11009678 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2310291121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans blink their eyes frequently during normal viewing, more often than it seems necessary for keeping the cornea well lubricated. Since the closure of the eyelid disrupts the image on the retina, eye blinks are commonly assumed to be detrimental to visual processing. However, blinks also provide luminance transients rich in spatial information to neural pathways highly sensitive to temporal changes. Here, we report that the luminance modulations from blinks enhance visual sensitivity. By coupling high-resolution eye tracking in human observers with modeling of blink transients and spectral analysis of visual input signals, we show that blinking increases the power of retinal stimulation and that this effect significantly enhances visibility despite the time lost in exposure to the external scene. We further show that, as predicted from the spectral content of input signals, this enhancement is selective for stimuli at low spatial frequencies and occurs irrespective of whether the luminance transients are actively generated or passively experienced. These findings indicate that, like eye movements, blinking acts as a computational component of a visual processing strategy that uses motor behavior to reformat spatial information into the temporal domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Yang
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY14627
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY14627
| | - Janis Intoy
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY14627
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY14627
| | - Michele Rucci
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY14627
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY14627
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Derchi CC, Mikulan E, Mazza A, Casarotto S, Comanducci A, Fecchio M, Navarro J, Devalle G, Massimini M, Sinigaglia C. Distinguishing intentional from nonintentional actions through eeg and kinematic markers. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8496. [PMID: 37231006 PMCID: PMC10213007 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34604-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
How can an intentional movement be distinguished from the same movement done nonintentionally? How can this distinction be drawn without asking the subject, or in patients who are unable to communicate? Here we address these questions, by focusing on blinking. This is one of the most frequent spontaneous actions in our daily life, but it can also be done intentionally. Furthermore, blinking is often spared in patients with severe brain injuries, and for some, it is the only way to report complex meanings. Using kinematic and EEG-based measures, we found that intentional and spontaneous blinking are preceded by different brain activities, even when they are indistinguishable. Unlike spontaneous ones, intentional blinks are characterized by a slow negative EEG drift, resembling the classic readiness potential. We investigated the theoretical implication of this finding in stochastic decision models as well as the practical significance of using brain-based signals to improve the discrimination between intentional and nonintentional actions. As proof of principle, we considered three brain-injured patients with rare neurological syndromes characterized by motor and communicative impairments. Although further research is needed, our results indicate that brain-based signals can offer a feasible way to infer intentionality even in absence of overt communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Derchi
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, 20148, Milan, Italy
| | - E Mikulan
- Department of Health Sciences, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Via di Rudinì 8, 20146, Milan, Italy
| | - A Mazza
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, 20148, Milan, Italy
| | - S Casarotto
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, 20148, Milan, Italy
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via G. B. Grassi 75, 20157, Milan, Italy
| | - A Comanducci
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, 20148, Milan, Italy
| | - M Fecchio
- Center for Neurotechnology and Neurorecovery, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - J Navarro
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, 20148, Milan, Italy
| | - G Devalle
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, 20148, Milan, Italy
| | - M Massimini
- IRCCS, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi ONLUS, 20148, Milan, Italy.
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via G. B. Grassi 75, 20157, Milan, Italy.
| | - C Sinigaglia
- Department of Philosophy, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via Festa del Perdono 7, 20122, Milan, Italy.
- Cognition in Action (CIA) Unit, PHILAB, 20122, Milan, Italy.
- Department of Philosophy, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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Rodriguez JD, Lane KJ, Ousler GW, Angjeli E, Smith LM, Abelson MB. Blink: Characteristics, Controls, and Relation to Dry Eyes. Curr Eye Res 2017; 43:52-66. [PMID: 29043838 DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2017.1381270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Blink is a complex phenomenon that is profoundly affected by diverse endogenous and exogenous stimuli. It has been studied in the context of cognition, emotional, and psychological states, as an indicator of fatigue and sleepiness, particularly in the automobile and transportation industry, in visual tasking, and finally, as it relates to tear film stability and ocular surface health. The fact that it is highly variable and has input from so many sources makes it very difficult to study. In the present review, the behavior of blink in many of these systems is discussed, ultimately returning in each instance to a discussion of how these factors affect blink in the context of dry eyes. Blink is important to ocular surface health and to an individual's optimal functioning and quality of life. Disturbances in blink, as cause or effect, result in a breakdown of tear film stability, optical clarity, and visual function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Mark B Abelson
- a Ora, Inc , Andover , MA , USA.,b Department of Ophthalmology , Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA
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Mota IA, Coriolano MDG, Lins OG. Bereitschaftspotential preceding eyelid blinks in Parkinson's disease. ARQUIVOS DE NEURO-PSIQUIATRIA 2017; 75:539-545. [PMID: 28813084 DOI: 10.1590/0004-282x20170109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
METHODS Ten PD patients in stages 1 and 2 of the Hoehn & Yahr classification were compared to 18 healthy controls. Artifact-free EEG segments of two seconds preceding the onset of the blink potential were averaged and analyzed, and the statistical significance of the measured amplitudes were evaluated by analysis of variance models. RESULTS The presence of a BP in the PD patients was demonstrated. The mean amplitudes at 0 ms were respectively 0.6 µV and 3.3 µV for the BP patients and the normal controls, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The BP amplitudes were significantly smaller in PD patients than normal participants. The amplitudes of the BP were not modified by levodopa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Araújo Mota
- Hospital Universitário Lauro Wanderley, Ambulatório de Neurologia, João Pessoa PB, Brasil
| | | | - Otávio Gomes Lins
- Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Departamento de Neuropsiquiatria, Recife PE, Brasil
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