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Azuri E, Wax M, Gozlan Y, Wagner T, Mor O. Recent HIV-1 infection in Israel 2017-2021: Evaluation of geenius and HIV-1/2 combo assays for identifying recent infection detected by Sedia assay and assessment of factors related to recent infection: Recent HIV-1 infection in Israel. J Clin Virol 2024; 170:105624. [PMID: 38118239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2023.105624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Estimating HIV-1 recency of infection for incidence and local outbreaks detection usually involves specifically designed assays. Here, we established an approach to identify recent infections, estimate their rate, and assess potential risk factors. METHODS Randomly selected HIV-1 positive samples (n = 382) collected in 2017-2021 were tested by Sedia and compared to the results of Geenius recency algorithm and the S/CO values of the HIV-1/2 Combo assay. Using Geenius and Combo recency verdict, we assessed all cases diagnosed in 2017-2021. Related factors were further assessed. RESULTS While Geenius and Combo had a sensitivity of 65.9 % and 89.30 %, respectively, and specificity of 96 % and 90 %, respectively, compared to Sedia, higher concordance (97.2 %) and kappa (>0.9) were observed when the verdict of both assays together was compared to Sedia. Using this approach, 15.3 % (238/1548) of individuals diagnosed in 2017-2021 were defined as recently infected. In multivariate analysis, recent diagnosis was mainly associated with men who have sex with men (MSM) and with birthplace in Israel, Western/Central Europe, or North America. CONCLUSIONS Only 15.3 % of infections in 2017-2021, mainly in MSM and Israeli/Western countries-born individuals, were diagnosed early. Regular diagnostic assays have a potential to identify and monitor trends in recent infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Azuri
- Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Marina Wax
- National HIV and Viral Hepatitis Reference Laboratory, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Yael Gozlan
- National HIV and Viral Hepatitis Reference Laboratory, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Tali Wagner
- Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Orna Mor
- Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel; National HIV and Viral Hepatitis Reference Laboratory, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Ministry of Health, Ramat Gan, Israel.
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2
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Ambrosioni J, Liévano JR, Berrocal L, Inciarte A, de la Mora L, González-Cordón A, Martínez-Rebollar M, Laguno M, Torres B, Ugarte A, Chivite I, Leal L, de Lazzari E, Miró JM, Blanco JL, Martinez E, Mallolas J. Real-life experience with bictegravir/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide in a large reference clinical centre. J Antimicrob Chemother 2022; 77:1133-1139. [PMID: 35040990 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkab481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of bictegravir/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide (BIC/FTC/TAF) is mainly based on robust, pivotal clinical trials. OBJECTIVES To provide data on clinical use of BIC/FTC/TAF in real life. PATIENTS AND METHODS This was an observational, retrospective and single-centre study. We included all adult, treatment-naive (TN) and treatment-experienced (TE) people living with HIV (PLWH) starting BIC/FTC/TAF from 8 June 2018. We evaluated effectiveness [on treatment (OT), modified intention-to-treat (mITT) and intention-to-treat (ITT)], tolerability and safety in those patients who reached 6 months of follow-up (M6). RESULTS We included 1584 PLWH [213 TN (13%) and 1371 TE (87%)]. The median (IQR) follow-up was 16 (7-21) months, with 81% and 53% of PLWH reaching M6 and M12, respectively. By OT, mITT and ITT, HIV-RNA <50 copies/mL was 77%, 70% and 62% at M6 and 92%, 77% and 63% at M12 for TN PLWH and 94%, 89% and 83% at M6 and 93%, 85% and 78% at M12 for TE PLWH, respectively. In PLWH carrying an M184V/I substitution, OT RNA <50 copies/mL was 89.5% at M6. The median CD4 cell count increased from 329 to 511/μL in TN PLWH and from 630 to 683/μL in TE PLWH at M6. Of the total, 1148 (88%) PLWH continued on BIC/FTC/TAF at M6. The most frequent known reason for discontinuation was toxicity [42 (69%) cases]; only 7 cases were considered virological failures (0.6% of the total OT cohort at M6), with no emerging resistance substitutions. CONCLUSIONS In real life, BIC/FTC/TAF showed high rates of virological suppression and also in PLWH carrying lamivudine/emtricitabine resistance substitutions. The tolerability and safety of BIC/FTC/TAF were good, with high persistence observed for patients on this regimen at M6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Ambrosioni
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jhon Rojas Liévano
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Leire Berrocal
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alexy Inciarte
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lorena de la Mora
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana González-Cordón
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Martínez-Rebollar
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Montserrat Laguno
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Berta Torres
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ainoa Ugarte
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iván Chivite
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lorna Leal
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elisa de Lazzari
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José M Miró
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José L Blanco
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esteban Martinez
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Mallolas
- HIV Unit, Infectious Disease Service, Hospital Clínic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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3
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Crowe S, Bennett B, Fordan S. Impact of the 2014 CDC HIV testing guidelines on detection of acute HIV infections. J Clin Virol 2022; 146:105058. [PMID: 34973475 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2021.105058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued updated guidelines for HIV testing in 2014. These guidelines recommend screening using an HIV-1/2 antigen/antibody (Ag/Ab) test and create the ability to identify algorithm-defined acute HIV infections (AHI). The guidelines also recommend laboratory confirmation of preliminary positive point of care (POC) rapid HIV test results and specimens from high-risk individuals who test POC rapid negative. The Florida Public Health Laboratory (FPHL) switched from an antibody-only algorithm to the CDC recommended algorithm April 16, 2012. OBJECTIVES To analyze the FPHL HIV testing data and evaluate the impact of the CDC recommended algorithm on the identification of AHI, time to result and inconclusive HIV reports. STUDY DESIGN FPHL HIV test data, for the period January 1, 2010 through December 31, 2019, was reviewed to determine the number of AHI cases identified, the number of indeterminate HIV results and the time from specimen receipt to result for tests in the antibody-only and CDC recommended algorithms. In addition, POC rapid results were compared to laboratory-based results for AHI cases for which rapid test results were available. RESULTS There was no difference in time to result between the antibody-only and CDC recommended algorithms for HIV negative specimens. The time to result for HIV-1 positive specimens decreased from an average of 5 days with the antibody-only algorithm to an average of 1 day with the CDC recommended algorithm. The average number of indeterminate results per month decreased from 6.25 per month with the antibody-only algorithm to an average of 2.5 per month using the CDC recommended algorithm. Despite HIV seropositivity decreasing by 0.5% during the study period (2012 = 3.1% [3,892/124,394]: 2019 = 2.6% [2,456/95,525]), AHI cases increased annually from a total of 4 in 2012 to over 50 in 2019 and cases were identified in 30 of 67 Florida counties. The increase in identification of AHIs is credited to educational efforts with healthcare providers to encourage further testing on individuals with risk factors for HIV and a recent POC HIV-1/2 rapid negative test result. CONCLUSIONS Data indicates that performing HIV testing according to the CDC recommended algorithm decreased time to result for HIV positive results, reduced the number of indeterminate results and identified algorithm-defined AHI. In addition, laboratory-based testing is warranted for high-risk individuals who test negative by POC rapid testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Crowe
- Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Public Health Laboratories, Jacksonville Florida, United States of America.
| | - Berry Bennett
- Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Public Health Laboratories, Jacksonville Florida, United States of America
| | - Sally Fordan
- Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Public Health Laboratories, Jacksonville Florida, United States of America
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Parczewski M, Scheibe K, Witak-Jędra M, Pynka M, Aksak-Wąs B, Urbańska A. Infection with HIV-1 subtype D adversely affects the live expectancy independently of antiretroviral drug use. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2021; 90:104754. [PMID: 33540086 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION HIV-1 subtypes have been associated with less favourable clinical profiles, differences in disease progression and higher risk of neurocognitive deficit. In this study we aimed to analyse the long term survival disparities between patients infected with the most common HIV-1 variants observed in Poland. METHODS For the study data from 518 Caucasian non-immigrant patients of Polish origin infected with divergent HIV subtypes and variants [subtype A (n = 35, 6.8%), subtype B (n = 386, 74.5%), subtype C (n = 13, 2.5%), subtype D (n = 58, 11.19%) or other non-A,B,C,D (n = 26, 5.01%)variants] were analysed. Subtyping was performed using the partial pol (reverse transcriptase and protease) sequencing. HIV variant was coupled with clinical, virologic and survival data censored at 20 years of observation. Overall survival and on antiretroviral treatment survival was analysed using Kaplan-Meyer as well as unadjusted and multivariate Cox proportional hazards models. RESULTS Significantly higher mortality was observed among subtype D (28.8%) infected subjects compared to subtype B (11.7%, p = 0.0004). Increased risk of death among subtype D cases remained significant when cART treated individuals were analysed, with on-treatment mortality of 26.9% for subtype D (p = 0.006) compared to 10.73% in subtype B infected cases. Kaplan-Meyer survival estimates differed significantly across all investigated HIV-1 variant groups when overall 20 year mortality was analysed (log rank p = 0.029), being non-significant for the cART treated group. In multivariate model of overall 20 year survival, adjusted for age at diagnosis, gender, HCV and AIDS status, lymphocyte CD4 count, transmission route and HIV viral load, only age and subtype D were independently associated with higher likelihood of death [HR: 1.08 (95%CI: 1.03-1.14, p = 0.002) and HR: 7.91 (95%CI:2.33-26.86), p < 0.001, respectively]. In the on-treatment (cART) multivariate model of 20 year survival adjusted for the same parameters only subtype D remained as the independent factor associated with higher mortality risk [HR: 4.24 (95%CI:1.31-13.7), p = 0.02]. CONCLUSIONS Subtype D has an independent deleterious effect of survival, even in the setting of antiretroviral treatment. Observed effect indicated higher clinical vigilance for patients infected with this subtype even after long time of stable antiretroviral treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miłosz Parczewski
- Department of Infectious, Tropical Diseases and Immune Deficiency, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland.
| | - Kaja Scheibe
- Department of Infectious, Tropical Diseases and Immune Deficiency, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Magdalena Witak-Jędra
- Department of Infectious, Tropical Diseases and Immune Deficiency, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Magdalena Pynka
- Department of Infectious, Tropical Diseases and Immune Deficiency, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Bogusz Aksak-Wąs
- Department of Infectious, Tropical Diseases and Immune Deficiency, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Anna Urbańska
- Department of Infectious, Tropical Diseases and Immune Deficiency, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
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Kireev DE, Chulanov VP, Shipulin GA, Semenov AV, Tivanova EV, Kolyasnikova NM, Zueva EB, Pokrovskiy VV, Galli C. Serological diagnosis and prevalence of HIV-1 infection in Russian metropolitan areas. BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21:24. [PMID: 33413197 PMCID: PMC7791727 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-020-05695-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND HIV infection is a major health problem in Russia. We aimed to assess HIV prevalence in different population groups and to compare the characteristics of 4th generation immunoassays from Abbott, Bio-Rad, Vector-Best, Diagnostic Systems, and Medical Biological Unit. METHODS The study included 4452 individuals from the general population (GP), 391 subjects at high risk of HIV infection (HR) and 699 with potentially interfering conditions. HIV positivity was confirmed by immunoblot and by HIV RNA, seroconversion and virus diversity panels were also used. HIV avidity was employed to assess recent infections. RESULTS The prevalence in GP was 0.40%, higher in males (0.62%) and in people aged < 40 years (0.58%). Patients attending dermo-venereal centers and drug users had a high prevalence (34.1 and 58.8%). Recent infections were diagnosed in 20% of GP and in 4.2% of HR. Assay sensitivity was 100% except for one false negative (99,54%, MBU). Specificity was 99.58-99.89% overall, but as low as 93.26% on HR (Vector-Best). Small differences on early seroconversion were recorded. Only the Abbott assay detected all samples on the viral diversity panel. CONCLUSION HIV infection rate in the high-risk groups suggests that awareness and screening campaigns should be enhanced. Fourth generation assays are adequate but performance differences must be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Kireev
- Federal Budget Institute of Science Central Research Institute of Epidemiology Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor), Novogireyevskaya St., 3A, 111123, Moscow, Russia.
| | - V P Chulanov
- Federal Budget Institute of Science Central Research Institute of Epidemiology Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor), Novogireyevskaya St., 3A, 111123, Moscow, Russia
- I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - G A Shipulin
- Center of Strategical Planning and Management of Biomedical Health Risks of the Ministry of Health, Moscow, Russia
| | - A V Semenov
- St. Petersburg Pasteur Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, St. Petersburg, Russia
- North-Western State Medical University named after I.I. Mechnikov, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - E V Tivanova
- Federal Budget Institute of Science Central Research Institute of Epidemiology Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor), Novogireyevskaya St., 3A, 111123, Moscow, Russia
| | - N M Kolyasnikova
- Federal Budget Institute of Science Central Research Institute of Epidemiology Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor), Novogireyevskaya St., 3A, 111123, Moscow, Russia
| | - E B Zueva
- St. Petersburg Pasteur Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - V V Pokrovskiy
- Federal Budget Institute of Science Central Research Institute of Epidemiology Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor), Novogireyevskaya St., 3A, 111123, Moscow, Russia
| | - C Galli
- Abbott Diagnostics, Rome, Italy
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Immunological and virological efficacy of different antiretroviral regimens initiated during acute/recent HIV infection. AIDS 2020; 34:2269-2274. [PMID: 32910066 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000002685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Antiretroviral treatment (ART) during acute/recent HIV infection decreases transmission and optimizes immune recovery but the optimal ART-regimen in this setting is unknown. The objectives were to analyze the virological efficacy, immunological reconstitution and tolerability of different ART-regimens at 3 years after starting ART during acute/recent HIV infection. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study of consecutive acutely/recently infected patients who started ART within 6 months postinfection. METHODS We compared regimens based on protease-inhibitors (N = 28), integrase-strand-transfer-inhibitors (InSTI, N = 87) and nonnucleoside-reverse-transcriptase-inhibitors (N = 22). Virological suppression (viral load <50 copies/ml), immune reconstitution (CD4 T-cell count >900 cells/μl and CD4/CD8 ratio >1) and adverse events leading to ART discontinuation at 1 and 3 years were compared. RESULTS Baseline characteristics were comparable among groups. Overall viral suppression at 1 (96%) and 3 years (99%) was comparable in all ART regimens and, InSTI group, comparable for dolutegravir and elvitegravir within InSTIs. CD4 T-cell counts at 1 year were comparable in all ART regimens. Overall proportion of patients reaching CD4 cell count more than 900 cells/μl and CD4/CD8 ratio more than 1 was 36% and 40% and 46% and 63% at 1 and 3 years, respectively with no differences among ART regimens. Starting ART during the earliest Fiebig stages (I-V vs. VI) was associated with higher rates of CD4 cell count more than 900 cells/μl at 3 years (P = 0.027). Discontinuation due to adverse events was more frequent with nonnucleoside-reverse-transcriptase-inhibitors compared with other ART classes. CONCLUSION Viral suppression and immunological recovery were excellent, with no differences between ART regimens. Earlier ART initiation was associated with a higher proportion of long-term immunological recovery.
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Nicolás D, Suárez A, Ambrosioni J, Manzardo C, Ligero C, Costa J, Fernández E, Marcos MÁ, Plana M, Mosquera MM, Sánchez-Palomino S, Gatell JM, Miró JM. Prevalence, clinical characteristics and outcome of severe primary HIV-1 infection: A prospective cohort study. Int J Infect Dis 2019; 88:73-79. [PMID: 31401201 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2019.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Severe cases of primary HIV infection have been described in patients presenting with neurological involvement, AIDS defining events or other life-threatening events. These severe forms have not been fully studied. OBJECTIVES To determine the prevalence and characteristics of severe PHI in a hospital-based cohort of primary HIV infection, and the response to the early initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) at 12 months. METHODS Every patient with PHI attending Hospital Clínic of Barcelona (1997-2015) was evaluated. Severe PHI was defined using clinical, analytical and immunological criteria. Chi-squared test was used for categorical variables and Student's t-test for quantitative variables. RESULTS 33% of 224 PHI patients (95% CI: 26.84%-39.16%) had a severe PHI. These patients had more symptoms, abnormal analytical parameters and hospital admissions. The severe PHI group had a significantly higher viral load although no differences were observed at 12 months in terms of viral suppression or CD4 count recovery. None died during PHI. CONCLUSIONS Up to one third of patients in our cohort presented with a severe PHI, which was associated with higher hospitalization rates and higher plasma HIV RNA viral load. However, severe forms were not associated to a worse clinical, immunological or virological outcome at 12 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Nicolás
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Antoni Suárez
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Juan Ambrosioni
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Christian Manzardo
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Carmen Ligero
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Josep Costa
- Microbiology Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Emma Fernández
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - M Ángeles Marcos
- Microbiology Service, Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, Institute for Global Health, (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Montserrat Plana
- Retrovirology and Viral Immunopathology Laboratory, AIDS Research Group, IDIBAPS, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Spain.
| | - María Mar Mosquera
- Microbiology Service, Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, Institute for Global Health, (ISGlobal), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Sonsoles Sánchez-Palomino
- Retrovirology and Viral Immunopathology Laboratory, AIDS Research Group, IDIBAPS, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Jose M Gatell
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - José M Miró
- Infectious Diseases Service, Hospital Clinic-IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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