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Kv R, Prasad K, Peralam Yegneswaran P. Segmentation and Classification Approaches of Clinically Relevant Curvilinear Structures: A Review. J Med Syst 2023; 47:40. [PMID: 36971852 PMCID: PMC10042761 DOI: 10.1007/s10916-023-01927-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
Detection of curvilinear structures from microscopic images, which help the clinicians to make an unambiguous diagnosis is assuming paramount importance in recent clinical practice. Appearance and size of dermatophytic hyphae, keratitic fungi, corneal and retinal vessels vary widely making their automated detection cumbersome. Automated deep learning methods, endowed with superior self-learning capacity, have superseded the traditional machine learning methods, especially in complex images with challenging background. Automatic feature learning ability using large input data with better generalization and recognition capability, but devoid of human interference and excessive pre-processing, is highly beneficial in the above context. Varied attempts have been made by researchers to overcome challenges such as thin vessels, bifurcations and obstructive lesions in retinal vessel detection as revealed through several publications reviewed here. Revelations of diabetic neuropathic complications such as tortuosity, changes in the density and angles of the corneal fibers have been successfully sorted in many publications reviewed here. Since artifacts complicate the images and affect the quality of analysis, methods addressing these challenges have been described. Traditional and deep learning methods, that have been adapted and published between 2015 and 2021 covering retinal vessels, corneal nerves and filamentous fungi have been summarized in this review. We find several novel and meritorious ideas and techniques being put to use in the case of retinal vessel segmentation and classification, which by way of cross-domain adaptation can be utilized in the case of corneal and filamentous fungi also, making suitable adaptations to the challenges to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajitha Kv
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Keerthana Prasad
- Manipal School of Information Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Prakash Peralam Yegneswaran
- Department of Microbiology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India
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Layek K, Basak B, Samanta S, Maity SP, Barui A. Stiffness prediction on elastography images and neuro-fuzzy based segmentation for thyroid cancer detection. APPLIED OPTICS 2022; 61:49-59. [PMID: 35200805 DOI: 10.1364/ao.445226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The elastography method detects metastatic changes by measuring the stiffness of tissues. Estimation of elasticities from elastography images facilitates more precise identification of the metastatic region and detection of the same. In this study, an automated segmentation algorithm is proposed that calculates pixel-wise elasticity values to detect thyroid cancer from elastography images. This intensity to elasticity conversion is achieved by constructing a fuzzy inference system using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system supported by two meta-heuristic algorithms: genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimization. Pixels of the input color images (red, green, and blue) are replaced by equivalent elasticity values (in kilo Pascal) and are stored in a two-dimensional array to form an "elasticity matrix." The elasticity matrix is then segmented into three regions, namely, suspicious, near-suspicious, and non-suspicious, based on the elasticity measures, where the threshold limits are calculated using the fuzzy entropy maximization method optimized by the differential evolution algorithm. Segmentation performances are evaluated by Kappa and the dice similarity co-efficient, and average values achieved are 0.94±0.11 and 0.93±0.12, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity values achieved by the proposed method are 86.35±0.34% and 97.67±0.40%, respectively, showing an overall accuracy of 93.50±0.42%. Results justify the importance of pixel stiffness for segmentation of thyroid nodules in elastography images.
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Fast and efficient retinal blood vessel segmentation method based on deep learning network. Comput Med Imaging Graph 2021; 90:101902. [PMID: 33892389 DOI: 10.1016/j.compmedimag.2021.101902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The segmentation of the retinal vascular tree presents a major step for detecting ocular pathologies. The clinical context expects higher segmentation performance with a reduced processing time. For higher accurate segmentation, several automated methods have been based on Deep Learning (DL) networks. However, the used convolutional layers bring to a higher computational complexity and so for execution times. For such need, this work presents a new DL based method for retinal vessel tree segmentation. Our main contribution consists in suggesting a new U-form DL architecture using lightweight convolution blocks in order to preserve a higher segmentation performance while reducing the computational complexity. As a second main contribution, preprocessing and data augmentation steps are proposed with respect to the retinal image and blood vessel characteristics. The proposed method is tested on DRIVE and STARE databases, which can achieve a better trade-off between the retinal blood vessel detection rate and the detection time with average accuracy of 0.978 and 0.98 in 0.59 s and 0.48 s per fundus image on GPU NVIDIA GTX 980 platforms, respectively for DRIVE and STARE database fundus images.
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Mookiah MRK, Hogg S, MacGillivray TJ, Prathiba V, Pradeepa R, Mohan V, Anjana RM, Doney AS, Palmer CNA, Trucco E. A review of machine learning methods for retinal blood vessel segmentation and artery/vein classification. Med Image Anal 2020; 68:101905. [PMID: 33385700 DOI: 10.1016/j.media.2020.101905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The eye affords a unique opportunity to inspect a rich part of the human microvasculature non-invasively via retinal imaging. Retinal blood vessel segmentation and classification are prime steps for the diagnosis and risk assessment of microvascular and systemic diseases. A high volume of techniques based on deep learning have been published in recent years. In this context, we review 158 papers published between 2012 and 2020, focussing on methods based on machine and deep learning (DL) for automatic vessel segmentation and classification for fundus camera images. We divide the methods into various classes by task (segmentation or artery-vein classification), technique (supervised or unsupervised, deep and non-deep learning, hand-crafted methods) and more specific algorithms (e.g. multiscale, morphology). We discuss advantages and limitations, and include tables summarising results at-a-glance. Finally, we attempt to assess the quantitative merit of DL methods in terms of accuracy improvement compared to other methods. The results allow us to offer our views on the outlook for vessel segmentation and classification for fundus camera images.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stephen Hogg
- VAMPIRE project, Computing (SSEN), University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Tom J MacGillivray
- VAMPIRE project, Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Vijayaraghavan Prathiba
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, Gopalapuram, Chennai 600086, India
| | - Rajendra Pradeepa
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, Gopalapuram, Chennai 600086, India
| | - Viswanathan Mohan
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, Gopalapuram, Chennai 600086, India
| | - Ranjit Mohan Anjana
- Madras Diabetes Research Foundation and Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, Gopalapuram, Chennai 600086, India
| | - Alexander S Doney
- Division of Population Health and Genomics, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 9SY, UK
| | - Colin N A Palmer
- Division of Population Health and Genomics, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 9SY, UK
| | - Emanuele Trucco
- VAMPIRE project, Computing (SSEN), University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
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Algorithms for Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy and Diabetic Macula Edema- A Review. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1307:357-373. [PMID: 32166636 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2020_499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Human eye is one of the important organs in human body, with iris, pupil, sclera, cornea, lens, retina and optic nerve. Many important eye diseases as well as systemic diseases manifest themselves in the retina. The most widespread causes of blindness in the industrialized world are glaucoma, Age Related Macular Degeneration (ARMD), Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) and Diabetic Macula Edema (DME). The development of a retinal image analysis system is a demanding research topic for early detection, progression analysis and diagnosis of eye diseases. Early diagnosis and treatment of retinal diseases are essential to prevent vision loss. The huge and growing number of retinal disease affected patients, cost of current hospital-based detection methods (by eye care specialists) and scarcity in the number of ophthalmologists are the barriers to achieve the recommended screening compliance in the patient who is at the risk of retinal diseases. Developing an automated system which uses pattern recognition, computer vision and machine learning to diagnose retinal diseases is a potential solution to this problem. Damage to the tiny blood vessels in the retina in the posterior part of the eye due to diabetes is named as DR. Diabetes is a disease which occurs when the pancreas does not secrete enough insulin or the body does not utilize it properly. This disease slowly affects the circulatory system including that of the retina. As diabetes intensifies, the vision of a patient may start deteriorating and leading to DR. The retinal landmarks like OD and blood vessels, white lesions and red lesions are segmented to develop automated screening system for DR. DME is an advanced symptom of DR that can lead to irreversible vision loss. DME is a general term defined as retinal thickening or exudates present within 2 disk diameter of the fovea center; it can either focal or diffuse DME in distribution. In this paper, review the algorithms used in diagnosis of DR and DME.
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Randive SN, Senapati RK, Rahulkar AD. A review on computer-aided recent developments for automatic detection of diabetic retinopathy. J Med Eng Technol 2019; 43:87-99. [PMID: 31198073 DOI: 10.1080/03091902.2019.1576790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy is a serious microvascular disorder that might result in loss of vision and blindness. It seriously damages the retinal blood vessels and reduces the light-sensitive inner layer of the eye. Due to the manual inspection of retinal fundus images on diabetic retinopathy to detect the morphological abnormalities in Microaneurysms (MAs), Exudates (EXs), Haemorrhages (HMs), and Inter retinal microvascular abnormalities (IRMA) is very difficult and time consuming process. In order to avoid this, the regular follow-up screening process, and early automatic Diabetic Retinopathy detection are necessary. This paper discusses various methods of analysing automatic retinopathy detection and classification of different grading based on the severity levels. In addition, retinal blood vessel detection techniques are also discussed for the ultimate detection and diagnostic procedure of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Furthermore, the paper elaborately discussed the systematic review accessed by authors on various publicly available databases collected from different medical sources. In the survey, meta-analysis of several methods for diabetic feature extraction, segmentation and various types of classifiers have been used to evaluate the system performance metrics for the diagnosis of DR. This survey will be helpful for the technical persons and researchers who want to focus on enhancing the diagnosis of a system that would be more powerful in real life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh Nagnath Randive
- a Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering , Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram , Guntur , Andhra Pradesh , India
| | - Ranjan K Senapati
- a Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering , Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram , Guntur , Andhra Pradesh , India
| | - Amol D Rahulkar
- b Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering , National Institute of Technology , Goa , India
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Recent Development on Detection Methods for the Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy. Symmetry (Basel) 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/sym11060749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a complication of diabetes that exists throughout the world. DR occurs due to a high ratio of glucose in the blood, which causes alterations in the retinal microvasculature. Without preemptive symptoms of DR, it leads to complete vision loss. However, early screening through computer-assisted diagnosis (CAD) tools and proper treatment have the ability to control the prevalence of DR. Manual inspection of morphological changes in retinal anatomic parts are tedious and challenging tasks. Therefore, many CAD systems were developed in the past to assist ophthalmologists for observing inter- and intra-variations. In this paper, a recent review of state-of-the-art CAD systems for diagnosis of DR is presented. We describe all those CAD systems that have been developed by various computational intelligence and image processing techniques. The limitations and future trends of current CAD systems are also described in detail to help researchers. Moreover, potential CAD systems are also compared in terms of statistical parameters to quantitatively evaluate them. The comparison results indicate that there is still a need for accurate development of CAD systems to assist in the clinical diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy.
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Jebaseeli TJ, Durai CAD, Peter JD. Extraction of Retinal Blood Vessels on Fundus Images by Kirsch's Template and Fuzzy C-Means. J Med Phys 2019; 44:21-26. [PMID: 30983767 PMCID: PMC6438054 DOI: 10.4103/jmp.jmp_51_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Accurate segmentation of retinal blood vessel is an important task in computer-aided diagnosis and surgery planning of diabetic retinopathy. Despite the high-resolution of photographs in fundus photography, the contrast between the blood vessels and the retinal background tends to be poor. Materials and Methods: In this proposed method, contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization is used for noise cancellation and improving the local contrast of the image. By uniform distribution of gray values, it enhances the image and makes the hidden features more visible. The extraction of the retinal blood vessel depends on two levels of optimization. The first level is the extraction of blood vessels from the retinal image using Kirsch's templates. The second level is used to find the coarse vessels with the assistance of the unsupervised method of Fuzzy C-Means clustering. After segmentation, to remove the optic disc, the region-based active contour method is used. The proposed system is evaluated using DRIVE dataset with 40 images. Results: The performance of the proposed approach is comparable with state of the art techniques. The proposed technique outperforms the existing techniques by achieving an accuracy of 99.55%, sensitivity of 71.83%, and specificity of 99.86% in the experimental setup. Conclusion: The results show that this approach is a suitable alternative technique for the supervised method and it is support for similar fundus images dataset.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Jemima Jebaseeli
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - C Anand Deva Durai
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - J Dinesh Peter
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Zhou L, Yu Q, Xu X, Gu Y, Yang J. Improving dense conditional random field for retinal vessel segmentation by discriminative feature learning and thin-vessel enhancement. COMPUTER METHODS AND PROGRAMS IN BIOMEDICINE 2017; 148:13-25. [PMID: 28774435 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2017.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 05/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES As retinal vessels in color fundus images are thin and elongated structures, standard pairwise based random fields, which always suffer the "shrinking bias" problem, are not competent for such segmentation task. Recently, a dense conditional random field (CRF) model has been successfully used in retinal vessel segmentation. Its corresponding energy function is formulated as a linear combination of several unary features and a pairwise term. However, the hand-crafted unary features can be suboptimal in terms of linear models. Here we propose to learn discriminative unary features and enhance thin vessels for pairwise potentials to further improve the segmentation performance. METHODS Our proposed method comprises four main steps: firstly, image preprocessing is applied to eliminate the strong edges around the field of view (FOV) and normalize the luminosity and contrast inside FOV; secondly, a convolutional neural network (CNN) is properly trained to generate discriminative features for linear models; thirdly, a combo of filters are applied to enhance thin vessels, reducing the intensity difference between thin and wide vessels; fourthly, by taking the discriminative features for unary potentials and the thin-vessel enhanced image for pairwise potentials, we adopt the dense CRF model to achieve the final retinal vessel segmentation. The segmentation performance is evaluated on four public datasets (i.e. DRIVE, STARE, CHASEDB1 and HRF). RESULTS Experimental results show that our proposed method improves the performance of the dense CRF model and outperforms other methods when evaluated in terms of F1-score, Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) and G-mean, three effective metrics for the evaluation of imbalanced binary classification. Specifically, the F1-score, MCC and G-mean are 0.7942, 0.7656, 0.8835 for the DRIVE dataset respectively; 0.8017, 0.7830, 0.8859 for STARE respectively; 0.7644, 0.7398, 0.8579 for CHASEDB1 respectively; and 0.7627, 0.7402, 0.8812 for HRF respectively. CONCLUSIONS The discriminative features learned in CNNs are more effective than hand-crafted ones. Our proposed method performs well in retinal vessel segmentation. The architecture of our method is trainable and can be integrated into computer-aided diagnostic (CAD) systems in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhou
- Institute of Image Processing and Pattern Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, SEIEE Building 2-427, No. 800, Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240 China.
| | - Qi Yu
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xun Xu
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yun Gu
- Institute of Image Processing and Pattern Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, SEIEE Building 2-427, No. 800, Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240 China
| | - Jie Yang
- Institute of Image Processing and Pattern Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, SEIEE Building 2-427, No. 800, Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240 China.
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Subudhi A, Pattnaik S, Sabut S. Blood vessel extraction of diabetic retinopathy using optimized enhanced images and matched filter. J Med Imaging (Bellingham) 2016; 3:044003. [PMID: 27981066 DOI: 10.1117/1.jmi.3.4.044003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate extraction of structural changes in the blood vessels of the retina is an essential task in diagnosis of retinopathy. Matched filter (MF) technique is the effective way to extract blood vessels, but the effectiveness is reduced due to noisy images. The concept of MF and MF with first-order derivative of Gaussian (MF-FDOG) has been implemented for retina images of the DRIVE database. The optimized particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is used for enhancing the images by edgels to improve the performance of filters. The vessels were detected by the response of thresholding to the MF, whereas the threshold is adjusted in response to the FDOG. The PSO-based enhanced MF response significantly improved the performances of filters to extract fine blood vessels structures. Experimental results show that the proposed method based on enhanced images improved the accuracy to 91.1%, which is higher than that of MF and MF-FDOG, respectively. The peak signal-to-noise ratio was also found to be higher with low mean square error values in enhanced MF response. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity values are significantly improved among MF, MF-FDOG, and PSO-enhanced images ([Formula: see text]).
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Affiliation(s)
- Asit Subudhi
- SOA University , Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Institute of Technical Education and Research, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Subhra Pattnaik
- SOA University , Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Institute of Technical Education and Research, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Sukanta Sabut
- SOA University , Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Institute of Technical Education and Research, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
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