Innovative modifications in food processing to reduce the levels of mycotoxins

Evaluation of Ability of Inactivated Biomasses of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae to Adsorb Aflatoxin B1 In Vitro

Biological decontamination strategies using microorganisms to adsorb aflatoxins have shown promising results for reducing the dietary exposure to these contaminants. In this study, the ability of inactivated biomasses of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus (LRB) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SCB) incorporated alone or in combination into functional yogurts (FY) at 0.5-4.0% (w/w) to adsorb aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was evaluated in vitro. Higher adsorption percentages (86.9-91.2%) were observed in FY containing 1.0% LR + SC or 2.0% SC (w/w). The survival of mouse embryonic fibroblasts increased after exposure to yogurts containing LC + SC at 1.0-4.0% (w/w). No significant differences were noted in the physicochemical and sensory characteristics between aflatoxin-free FY and control yogurts (no biomass) after 30 days of storage. The incorporation of combined LRB and SCB into yogurts as vehicles for these inactivated biomasses is a promising alternative for reducing the exposure to dietary AFB1. The results of this trial support further studies to develop practical applications aiming at the scalability of using the biomasses evaluated in functional foods to mitigate aflatoxin exposure.

Mitigation of Mycotoxins in Food-Is It Possible?

Among microorganisms found in food, fungi stand out because they are adaptable and competitive in a large range of water activities, temperatures, pHs, humidities and substrate types. Besides sporulating, some species are toxigenic and produce toxic metabolites, mycotoxins, under adverse biotic and abiotic variables. Microorganisms are inactivated along the food chain, but mycotoxins have stable structures and remain in ready-to-eat food. The most prevalent mycotoxins in food, which are aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, patulin, tenuazonic acid, trichothecenes and zearalenone, have maximum tolerable limits (MTLs) defined as ppb and ppt by official organizations. The chronic and acute toxicities of mycotoxins and their stability are different in a chemical family. This critical review aims to discuss promising scientific research that successfully mitigated levels of mycotoxins and focus the results of our research group on this issue. It highlights the application of natural antifungal compounds, combinations of management, processing parameters and emergent technologies, and their role in reducing the levels and bioaccessibility. Despite good crop management and processing practices, total decontamination is almost impossible. Experimental evidence has shown that exposure to mycotoxins may be mitigated. However, multidisciplinary efforts need to be made to improve the applicability of successful techniques in the food supply chain to avoid mycotoxins' impact on global food insecurity.

Fusarium biocontrol: antagonism and mycotoxin elimination by lactic acid bacteria

Mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species are secondary metabolites with low molecular weight formed by filamentous fungi generally resistant to different environmental factors and, therefore, undergo slow degradation. Contamination by Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals and millets is the foremost quality challenge the food and feed industry faces across the globe. Several types of chemical preservatives are employed in the mitigation process of these mycotoxins, and they help in long-term storage; however, chemical preservatives can be used only to some extent, so the complete elimination of toxins from foods is still a herculean task. The growing demand for green-labeled food drives to evade the use of chemicals in the production processes is getting much demand. Thus, the biocontrol of food toxins is important in the developing food sector. Fusarium mycotoxins are world-spread contaminants naturally occurring in commodities, food, and feed. The major mycotoxins Fusarium species produce are deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, zearalenone, and T2/HT2 toxins. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), generally regarded as safe (GRAS), is a well-explored bacterial community in food preparations and preservation for ages. Recent research suggests that LAB are the best choice for extenuating Fusarium mycotoxins. Apart from Fusarium mycotoxins, this review focuses on the latest studies on the mechanisms of how LAB effectively detoxify and remove these mycotoxins through their various bioactive molecules and background information of these molecules.

Research progress on the application of different preservation methods for controlling fungi and toxins in fruit and vegetable

Fruits and vegetables are susceptible to fungal infections during picking, transportation, storage and processing, which have a high potential to produce toxins. Fungi and toxins can cause acute or chronic poisoning after entering the body. In the field of fruit and vegetable preservation, technologies such as temperature control, modified atmosphere, irradiation, application of natural or chemical preservatives, and edible films are commonly used. In practical applications, according to the types, physiological differences and actual needs of fruits and vegetables, suitable preservation methods can be selected to achieve the effect of preservation and control of fungi and toxins. The starting point of fresh-keeping technology is to delay post-harvest senescence of fruits and vegetables, inhibit the respiratory intensity, and control the reproduction of microorganisms, which is important to control the reproduction of fungi and the production of toxins. From the three directions of physical, chemical and biological means, the article analyses and explores the effects of different external factors on the production of toxins and the effects of different preservation techniques on fungal growth and toxin production in fruits and vegetables, in order to provide new ideas for the preservation of fruits and vegetables and the control of harmful substances in food.

Detoxification of mycotoxins in agricultural products by non-thermal physical technologies: a review of the past five years

Mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. and Fusarium spp. with small molecular weight and thermal stability, are highly toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites. Mycotoxins have caused widespread concern regarding food safety internationally because of their adverse effects on the health of humans and animals, and the major economic losses they cause. There is an urgent need to find ways to reduce or eliminate the impact of mycotoxins in food and feed without introducing new safety issues, or reducing nutritional quality. Non-thermal physical technology is the basis for new techniques to degrade mycotoxins, with great potential for practical detoxification applications in the food industry. Compared with conventional thermal treatments, non-thermal physical detoxification technologies are easier to apply and effective, with less adverse impact on the nutritional value of agricultural products. The advantages, limitations and development prospects of these new detoxification technologies are discussed. Further studies are recommended to standardize the treatment conditions for each detoxification technology, evaluate the safety of the degradation products, and to combine different detoxification technologies to achieve synergistic effects. This will facilitate realization of the great potential of the new technologies and the development of practical applications.

Mycotoxins and consumers' awareness: Recent progress and future challenges

While food shortages have become an important challenge, providing safe food resources is a point of interest on a global scale. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are formed through various fungi species. They are mainly spread through diets such as food or beverages. About one quarter of the world's food is spoiled with mycotoxins. As this problem is not resolved, it represents a significant threat to global food security. Besides the current concerns regarding the contamination of food items by these metabolites, the lack of knowledge by consumers and their possible growth and toxin production attracted considerable attention. While globalization provides a favorite condition for some countries, food security still is challenging for most countries. There are various approaches to reducing the mycotoxigenic fungi growth and formation of mycotoxins in food, include as physical, chemical, and biological processes. The current article will focus on collecting data regarding consumers' awareness of mycotoxins. Furthermore, a critical overview and comparison among different preventative approaches to reduce risk by consumers will be discussed. Finally, the current effect of mycotoxins on global trade, besides future challenges faced by mycotoxin contamination on food security, will be discussed briefly.

Non-thermal emerging processing Technologies: Mitigation of microorganisms and mycotoxins, sensory and nutritional properties maintenance in clean label fruit juices

The increase in the fruit juice consumption and the interest in clean label products boosted the development and evaluation of new processing technologies. The impact of some emerging non-thermal technologies in food safety and sensory properties has been evaluated. The main technologies applied in the studies are ultrasound, high pressure, supercritical carbon dioxide, ultraviolet, pulsed electric field, cold plasma, ozone and pulsed light. Since there is no single technique that presents high potential for all the evaluated requirements (food safety, sensory, nutritional and the feasibility of implementation in the industry), the search for new technologies to overcome the limitations is fundamental. The high pressure seems to be the most promising technology regarding all the aspects mentioned. Some of the outstanding results are 5 log reduction of E. coli, Listeria and Salmonella, 98.2% of polyphenol oxidase inactivation and 96% PME reduction. However its cost can be a limitation for industrial implementation. The combination of pulsed light and ultrasound could overcome this limitation and provide higher quality fruit juices. The combination was able to achieve 5.8-6.4 log cycles reduction of S. Cerevisiae, and pulsed light is able to obtain PME inactivation around 90%, 61.0 % more antioxidants, 38.8% more phenolics and 68.2% more vitamin C comparing to conventional processing, and similar sensory scores after 45 days at 4 °C comparing to fresh fruit juice. This review aims to update the information related to the application of non-thermal technologies in the fruit juice processing through systematic and updated data to assist in industrial implementation strategies.

Destruction of Mycotoxins in Poultry Waste under Anaerobic Conditions within Methanogenesis Catalyzed by Artificial Microbial Consortia

To reduce the toxicity of modern feeds polluted by mycotoxins, various sorbents are added to them when feeding animals. A part of the mycotoxins is excreted from the body of animals with these sorbents and remains in the manure. As a result, bulk animal wastes containing mixtures of mycotoxins are formed. It is known that it is partially possible to decrease the initial concentration of mycotoxins in the process of anaerobic digestion (AD) of contaminated methanogenic substrates. The aim of this review was to analyze the recent results in destruction of mycotoxins under the action of enzymes present in cells of anaerobic consortia catalyzing methanogenesis of wastes. The possible improvement of the functioning of the anaerobic artificial consortia during detoxification of mycotoxins in the bird droppings is discussed. Particular attention was paid to the possibility of effective functioning of microbial enzymes that catalyze the detoxification of mycotoxins, both at the stage of preparation of poultry manure for methanogenesis and directly in the anaerobic process itself. The sorbents with mycotoxins which appeared in the poultry wastes composed one of the topics of interest in this review. The preliminary alkaline treatment of poultry excreta before processing in AD was considered from the standpoint of effectively reducing the concentrations of mycotoxins in the waste.

Exploring the impact of lactic acid bacteria on the biocontrol of toxigenic Fusarium spp. and their main mycotoxins

The occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in foods is a serious global problem. Most of the regulated mycotoxins in food are produced by Fusarium spp. This work aimed to assess the antifungal activity of selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains against the main toxigenic Fusarium spp. isolated from cereals. Various machine learning (ML) algorithms such as neural networks (NN), random forest (RF), extreme gradient boosted trees (XGBoost), and multiple linear regression (MLR), were applied to develop models able to predict the percentage of fungal growth inhibition caused by the LAB strains tested. In addition, the ability of the assayed LAB strains to reduce/inhibit the production of the main mycotoxins associated with these fungi was studied by UPLC-MS/MS. All assays were performed at 20, 25, and 30 °C in dual culture (LAB plus fungus) on MRS agar-cereal-based media. All factors and their interactions very significantly influenced the percentage of growth inhibition compared to controls. The efficacy of LAB strains was higher at 20 °C followed by 30 °C and 25 °C. Overall, the order of susceptibility of the fungi to LAB was F. oxysporum > F. poae = F. culmorum ≥ F. sporotrichioides > F. langsethiae > F. graminearum > F. subglutinans > F. verticillioides. In general, the most effective LAB was Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides (T3Y6b), and the least effective were Latilactobacillus sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1 and T3Y2). XGBoost and RF were the algorithms that produced the most accurate predicting models of fungal growth inhibition. Mycotoxin levels were usually lower when fungal growth decreased. In the cultures of F. langsethiae treated with LAB, T-2 and HT-2 toxins were not detected except in the treatments with Pediococcus pentosaceus (M9MM5b, S11sMM1, and S1M4). These three strains of P. pentosaceus, L. mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides (T3Y6b) and L. mesenteroides ssp. dextranicum (T2MM3) inhibited fumonisin production in cultures of F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides. In F. culmorum cultures, zearalenone production was inhibited by all LAB strains, except L. sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1) and Companilactobacillus farciminis (T3Y6c), whereas deoxynivalenol and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol were only detected in cultures of L. sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1). The results show that an appropriate selection and use of LAB strains can be one of the most impacting tools in the control of toxigenic Fusarium spp. and their mycotoxins in food and therefore one of the most promising strategies in terms of efficiency, positive impact on the environment, food safety, food security, and international economy.

Single, Subsequent, or Simultaneous Treatments to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Solid Foods and Feeds: A Critical Review

Mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds jeopardize the public health of humans and animals and cause food security issues. The inefficacy of most preventive measures to control the production of fungi in foods and feeds during the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages incited interest in the mitigation of these mycotoxins that can be conducted by the application of various chemical, physical, and/or biological treatments. These treatments are implemented separately or through a combination of two or more treatments simultaneously or subsequently. The reduction rates of the methods differ greatly, as do their effect on the organoleptic attributes, nutritional quality, and the environment. This critical review aims at summarizing the latest studies related to the mitigation of mycotoxins in solid foods and feeds. It discusses and evaluates the single and combined mycotoxin reduction treatments, compares their efficiency, elaborates on their advantages and disadvantages, and sheds light on the treated foods or feeds, as well as on their environmental impact.

The control of Fusarium growth and decontamination of produced mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria

Global crop and food contamination with mycotoxins are one of the primary worldwide concerns, while there are several restrictions regarding approaching conventional physical and chemical mycotoxins decontamination methods due to nutrition loss, sensory attribute reduction in foods, chemical residual, inconvenient operation, high cost of equipment, and high energy consumption of some methods. In this regard, the overarching challenges of mycotoxin contamination in food and food crops require the development of biological decontamination strategies. Using certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as generally recognized safe (GRAS) compounds is one of the most effective alternatives due to their potential to release antifungal metabolites against various fungal factors species. This review highlights the potential applications of LAB as biodetoxificant agents and summarizes their decontamination activities against Fusarium growth and Fusarium mycotoxins released into food/feed. Firstly, the occurrence of Fusarium and the instrumental and bioanalytical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were in-depth discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthesis pathway of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium offers new insightful ideas clarifying the function of these secondary metabolites. Moreover, the characterization of LAB metabolites and their impact on the decontamination of the mycotoxin from Fusarium, besides the main mechanisms of mycotoxin decontamination, are covered. While the thematic growth inhibition of Fusarium and decontamination of their mycotoxin by LAB is very complex, approaching certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is worth deeper investigations.

Zearalenone Degradation by Dielectric Barrier Discharge Cold Plasma: The Kinetics and Mechanism

In this study, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) cold plasma was used to degrade zearalenone and the efficiency of degradation were evaluated. In addition, the degradation kinetics and possible pathway of degradation were investigated. The results showed that zearalenone degradation percentage increased with increasing voltage and time. When it was treated at 50 KV for 120 s, the degradation percentage could reach 98.28%. Kinetics analysis showed that the degradation process followed a first-order reaction, which fitted the exponential function model best (R² = 0.987). Meanwhile, liquid chromatographywith quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOF LC/MS) was used to analyze the degradation products, one major compound was identified. In this study, the reactive species generated in cold plasma was analyzed by Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) and the free radicals were detected by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR). This study could provide a theoretical basis for the degradation of zearalenone to a certain extent.

Evaluation of the Role of Probiotics As a New Strategy to Eliminate Microbial Toxins: a Review

Probiotics are living microorganisms that have favorable effects on human and animal health. The most usual types of microorganisms recruited as probiotics are lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria. To date, numerous utilizations of probiotics have been reported. In this paper, it is suggested that probiotic bacteria can be recruited to remove and degrade different types of toxins such as mycotoxins and algal toxins that damage host tissues and the immune system causing local and systemic infections. These microorganisms can remove toxins by disrupting, changing the permeability of the plasma membrane, producing metabolites, inhibiting the protein translation, hindering the binding to GTP binding proteins to GM1 receptors, or by preventing the interaction between toxins and adhesions. Here, we intend to review the mechanisms that probiotic bacteria use to eliminate and degrade microbial toxins.

Microbiological Decontamination of Mycotoxins: Opportunities and Limitations

The contamination of food and feeds with mycotoxins poses a global health risk to humans and animals, with major economic consequences. Good agricultural and manufacturing practices can help control mycotoxin contamination. Since these actions are not always effective, several methods of decontamination have also been developed, including physical, chemical, and biological methods. Biological decontamination using microorganisms has revealed new opportunities. However, these biological methods require legal regulations and more research before they can be used in food production. Currently, only selected biological methods are acceptable for the decontamination of feed. This review discusses the literature on the use of microorganisms to remove mycotoxins and presents their possible mechanisms of action. Special attention is given to Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast and lactic acid bacteria, and the use of yeast cell wall derivatives.

A global systematic review and meta-analysis of concentration and prevalence of mycotoxins in birds' egg

In the current study, the concentration and prevalence of birds' egg's mycotoxins among 11 articles (66 studies) based on countries, part of eggs, and type of mycotoxins subgroups were meta-analyses using a random-effect model. The order of mycotoxin according to concentration of mycotoxin was Deoxynivalenol (20.083 μg/kg) > Zearalenone (2.065 μg/kg) > Enniatin (1.120 μg/kg) > Total aflatoxin (0.371 μg/kg) > Beauvericin (0.223 μg/kg) > Ochratoxins (0.087 μg/kg) > Citrinin (0.010 μg/kg). Further, the mycotoxins' concentration in the yolk part (2.070 μg/kg) was higher than the mixed eggs (0.283 μg/kg). The rank order of mycotoxin based on country was China (14.990 μg/kg) > Cameroon (7.594 μg/kg) > Thailand (1.870 μg/kg) > Finland (0.920 μg/kg) > Iran (0.312 μg/kg) > Jordan (0.202 μg/kg) > Belgium (0.183 μg/kg) > Spain ( South Korea ( DON (85.00%) > AFT (20.15%) > OT (16.00%). The overall prevalence of mycotoxin was equal to 29.65%. Also, the concentration of mycotoxins in China and Cameroon was higher than in other countries. Therefore, the monitoring programs to reduce mycotoxins in bird eggs consumed in some countries such as China and Cameroon should be considered.