Future thinking about social targets: The influence of prediction outcome on memory

Motivation and prediction-driven processing of social memoranda

Social semantic memory guides many aspects of behavior. Individuals rely on acquired and inferred knowledge about personal characteristics and group membership to predict the behavior and character of social targets. These predictions then determine the expectations from, the behavior in, and the interpretations of social interactions. According to predictive processing accounts, mnemonic and attentional mechanisms should enhance the processing of prediction-violating events. However, empirical findings suggest that prediction-consistent social events are often better remembered. This mini-review integrates recent evidence from social and non-social memory research to highlight the role of motivation in explaining these discrepancies. A particular emphasis is given to the continuous nature of prediction-(in)consistency, the epistemic tendency of perceivers to maintain or update their knowledge, and the dynamic influences of motivation on multiple steps in prediction-driven social memory. The suggested framework provides a coherent outlook of existing work and offers promising future directions to better understand the ebb and flow of social memoranda.

A preliminary experimental test of the crossed influences between the valence of collective memory and collective future thinking

This research experimentally examined the crossed influences between the emotional valence of collective memory and collective future thinking. As remembering the past and imagining the future are shaped by the present, we additionally test whether perceived anomie (i.e., perceiving present society as disintegrated and disregulated) would moderate these influences. Study 1 (N = 228 French participants) manipulated the valence of collective memory (positive vs. negative French past) to test its effect on the valence of collective future thinking. Results showed that the salience of a negative (vs. positive) French past lead to the projection of a more negative French future only among participants who perceived present society as highly disregulated. Study 2 (N = 215) focused on the influence of the valence of collective future thinking (positive vs. negative French future) on the valence associated with the French past. Results showed that the salience of a negative (vs. positive) French future lead left-wing participants to rate more positively events/figures of the French past that are usually valued by conservatives. Taken together, these studies provided evidence of conditional effects in the crossed influences between the emotional valence of collective memory and collective future thinking, thus contributing to the recent literature on collective mental time travel.

Lower constraint testing enhances the testing effect for some contextual details but not others

INTRODUCTION

Retrieval practice has been shown to be an effective means of learning new information, a memory phenomenon known as the testing effect or the retrieval practice effect. Some work suggests that the magnitude of the testing effect can be enhanced when the test used for retrieval practice uses fewer cues to retrieve previously studied information. It is unclear, however, whether such testing benefits extend to peripheral contextual details associated with studied materials (e.g., location where stimuli appear, font color in which items are presented, etc.). In this experiment, we examine both item memory (i.e., memory for the studied items) and context memory under conditions where the intervening test offers fewer cues (i.e., lower constraint) compared to more cues (higher constraint) to better understand item and context memory testing effects.

METHODS

Participants first studied word pairs presented in one of eight locations as well as in either red or green font color. Then, in the re-exposure phase, participants processed materials in two types of intervening tests (lower constraint and a higher constraint test) as well as in a restudy condition, before a final memory test.

RESULTS

For item memory, results showed that memory was better in the lower constraint testing condition compared to both the higher constraint testing condition as well as the restudy (control) condition. For context memory, results indicated improved memory for location context under lower constraint testing compared to both higher constraint testing and restudy conditions. There was no difference in memory, however, for color context across all conditions.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these findings suggest that providing fewer cues to aid retrieval in the intervening test can induce better memory for both items as well as some contextual details.

Do we really remember the view? The cellar door schema and its contribution to memorable experiences: Recommendations for cellar door practices

The importance of enjoyable, memorable cellar door experiences is well-established in the literature. The winescape, which incorporates views, building design, and ambience is recognised as a central motivation for wine tourism and the most repeated content in word-of-mouth communication, a valuable marketing tool. Recent research has prioritised human interaction, which develops a connection as the most important component of the cellar door experience (d'Ament, Nayeem, & Saliba, 2022). The current study expands previous research methodologies, adopting memory work and cellar door surveys in a mixed methods approach to explore the cellar door schema and its influence on cellar door expectations, assessments, purchases, and future positive word-of-mouth communication. A constructivist grounded theory approach was adopted to analyse participant memories. A Bayesian network was produced from 136 cellar door surveys to determine the influence of cellar door schema on purchases and intention to engage in word-of-mouth communication. The results supported recent findings that the human element is the most remembered and valued; it fosters a connection, strengthens brand attachment and creates enduring customers. The winescape, while important for grounding the memory, is less prominent in recollections. Additionally, the results demonstrate the importance of word-of-mouth as a contributor to cellar door schemas. Recommendations are made for cellar door managers and staff who strive to create memorable cellar door experiences for their customers.

Similarity to the self influences memory for social targets

The construct of the self is important in the domain of memory research. Recent work has shown that person memory is influenced by similarity of social targets to the self. The current experiments investigate self-similarity as defined by traits and political ideology to better understand how memory for social targets is organised. Across three experiments, participants formed positive or negative impressions based on each target's picture, a trait-implying behavior (Experiments 1 & 2), and/or political ideology (conservative/liberal label in Experiment 2; political-ideological belief statements in Experiment 3) followed by a memory test. Results showed a self-similarity effect dependent on valence in Experiment 1, but not in Experiments 2 or 3 when participants processed ideological information associated with targets. These results suggest that self-similarity has an effect on memory for social targets, but that ideological information disrupts self-focused processing of others, suggesting that ideological information also has a powerful influence on what people remember about others (i.e. social targets).

The influence of memory for impressions based on behaviours and beliefs on approach/avoidance decisions

Recent work has shown that memory for various types of information associated with social targets (impressions based on behaviours and political ideology) influences decisions to approach or avoid those same targets. The current study was intended to better understand the extent that memory for other types of details associated with targets (beliefs and behaviours) affects subsequent approach/avoidance decisions. In this investigation, participants formed impressions of social targets represented by a picture and a sentence (a belief in Experiment 1; either a belief or behaviour in Experiment 2). Later, memory for the impressions and sentences associated with each target was tested. Finally, participants decided whether they would want to approach or avoid each target. Results demonstrated that accurate memory strongly influenced approach/avoidance decisions for targets associated with different types of information (beliefs; behaviours), although there was no difference in the effect of memory between beliefs and behaviours. Overall, results suggest an important role of memory in decisions to approach or avoid others.

Contextual Framework of the Generation Effect

In the modern era of psychology, researchers have used experiments to increase understanding of human memory, leading to the discovery of many memory phenomena. One example is the generation effect, where self-generating information often improves later memory for that information compared to reading. However, general assertions about memory such as the generation effect are often limited by boundary conditions, or situations where these effects no longer hold true (e.g., generating does not lead to better memory than reading). These boundary conditions indicate that memory is context sensitive, yet too often contextual experimental factors are neglected when researchers are designing studies and interpreting empirical data. In this article, we develop a contextual framework of the generation effect that describes experimental conditions that lead to increased or decreased memory performance by considering the interactions between four key experimental factors: encoding task, memory test, materials used in the experiment, and subject abilities. We present testable predictions generated by the framework, highlight the flexibility of this framework, and discuss avenues for future research. Overall, we argue that this framework can more fully account for a wide range of findings on the generation effect by expanding on existing multifactor theories attempting to explain the effect and its boundary conditions. This framework illuminates the need to investigate higher-order interactions between 4 key experimental factors to advance our understanding of the complex nature of the generation effect and human memory.

The reciprocal relationship between episodic memory and future thinking: How the outcome of predictions is subsequently remembered

Evidence suggests that memory is involved in making simulations and predictions about the future (i.e., future thinking), but less work has examined how the outcome of those predictions (whether events play out as predicted or expected) subsequently affects episodic memory. In this investigation, we examine whether memory is better for outcomes that are consistent with predictions, or whether memory is enhanced for outcomes that are inconsistent with predictions, after the predicted event occurs. In this experiment, participants learned a core trait associated with social targets (e.g., high in extroversion), before making predictions about behaviors targets would perform. Participants then were shown behaviors the social targets actually performed (i.e., prediction outcome), which was either consistent or inconsistent with predictions. After that, participants completed a memory test (recognition; recall) for the prediction outcomes. For recognition, the results revealed better memory for outcomes that were consistent with traits associated with targets (i.e., trait-consistent outcomes), compared to outcomes that were inconsistent (i.e., trait-inconsistent outcomes). Finding a memory advantage for trait-consistent outcomes suggests that outcomes that are in line with the contents of memory (e.g., what one knows; schemas) are more readily remembered than those that are inconsistent with memory, which may reflect an adaptive memory process. For recall, memory did not differ between trait-consistent and trait-inconsistent outcomes. Altogether, the results of this experiment advance understanding of the reciprocal relationship between episodic memory and future thinking and show that outcome of predictions has an influence on subsequent episodic memory, at least as measured by recognition.

Exploring the relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory

Retrieval practice effect refers to improved memory on a final test for information retrieved one or more times. Although past theoretical work identifies cognitive mechanisms to explain retrieval practice benefits, it is possible that improving self-efficacy during learning may also contribute to better memory, in line with limited past work showing a relationship between self-efficacy and memory. Across two experiments, we examine the potential relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory. In Experiment 1, we examined the extent change in self-efficacy accounted for improved memory on a final test after retrieval practice compared with restudy. In Experiment 2, we gave participants (false) feedback that was either negative (i.e., you performed worse than others), neutral (i.e., you performed the same as others), or positive (i.e., you performed better than others) to more directly assess the effects of self-efficacy on memory under retrieval practice conditions. Results of Experiment 1 showed a significant retrieval practice effect, with memory on the final test being better after retrieval practice compared with restudy. Self-efficacy did not significantly mediate the retrieval practice effect. Results of Experiment 2, however, showed that decreases in self-efficacy due to (false) negative feedback resulted in worse memory performance compared with neutral feedback. Such findings may suggest that change in self-efficacy after retrieval practice attempts, particularly negative feedback, affects memory at final test. Overall, these findings suggest a relationship between retrieval practice, self-efficacy, and memory, and imply that interventions that influence self-efficacy may be a plausible mechanism to modulate memory under some conditions.

Predicting and remembering the behaviors of social targets: how prediction accuracy affects episodic memory

Background

Decades of research has investigated the relationship between memory and future thinking. Although some of this work has shown that memory forms the basis of making predictions about the future, less work has investigated how the outcome of those predictions (whether consistent or inconsistent with what one predicts) is later remembered. Limited past works suggests that memory for outcomes that are consistent with what one predicts are better remembered that predictions that are inconsistent. To advance understanding of the relationship between episodic memory and future thinking, the current investigation examines how the outcome of predictions affects memory after the predicted events takes place.

Methods

In this experiment, participants first learned trait information about social targets. Then, participants imagined scenarios involving targets and the self (i.e., the participant) and made predictions about which behaviors targets would perform based on the trait information associated with targets participants learned earlier. Participants were then told the behaviors the targets actually performed (i.e., prediction outcome), which was either consistent or inconsistent with predictions, before then taking a memory test for prediction outcomes (what the social target actually did).

Results

Results showed memory for prediction-consistent outcomes was better than for prediction-inconsistent outcomes, suggesting people exhibit enhanced memory for events that are in line with predictions based on existing contents of memory (e.g., what one knows; schemas), which is in line with the limited past work in this domain.

Conclusion

Overall, finding better memory for prediction-consistent outcomes may reflect an adaptive function in memory, where people show enhanced memory for episodes when they play out as predicted, and aligned with the current contents of memory.

The influence of memory on approach and avoidance decisions: Investigating the role of episodic memory in social decision making

People are motivated to make social decisions to approach or avoid social targets (i.e., other people). Prior work has shown people make approach/avoidance (AA) decisions based on factors like physical appearance, race, gender, sexuality, etc., but less work has investigated the extent that memory for past encounters with social targets might influence AA decisions. Here, we investigate the role of episodic memory (memory for specific details associated with specific social targets) on AA decisions. In this investigation, participants formed positive or negative impressions based on social targets' behaviors before completing a memory test for specific episodic details associated with targets (self-generated impressions formed about target; behavior associated with targets). Participants then made AA decisions for those social targets, as well as new targets. Results showed strong approach tendencies when participants correctly remembered positive details associated with targets (impressions; behaviors) and strong avoidance tendencies when participants correctly remembered negative impressions associated with targets. For novel targets (targets not seen before and thus not associated with prior memory representations), participants showed no approach or avoidance tendencies. Overall, these findings suggest an important role for episodic memory on AA decisions, which is a potentially important mechanism in social decisions.

Examining the influence of brain stimulation to the medial prefrontal cortex on the self-reference effect in memory

Past work shows that processing information in relation to the self improves memory which is known as the self-reference effect in memory. Other work suggests that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can also improve memory. Given recent research on self-reference context memory effects (improved memory for contextual episodic details associated with self-referential processing), we were interested in examining the extent stimulation might increase the magnitude of the self-reference context memory effect. In this investigation, participants studied objects superimposed on different background scenes in either a self-reference or other-reference condition while receiving either active or sham stimulation to the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), a cortical region known to support self-reference context memory effects. Participants then completed a memory test that assessed item memory (have you seen this object before?) and context memory (with which background scene was this object paired?). Results showed a self-reference context memory effect driven by enhanced memory for stimuli processed in the self-reference compared to the other-reference condition across all participants (regardless of stimulation condition). tDCS, however, had no effect on memory. Specifically, stimulation did not increase the magnitude of the self-reference context memory effect under active compared to sham stimulation. These results suggest that stimulation of the dmPFC at encoding may not add to the memory benefits induced by self-referential processing suggesting a boundary condition to tDCS effects on memory.

Person Memory Mechanism Underlying Approach and Avoidance Judgments of Social Targets

People display approach and avoidance tendencies toward social targets. Although much research has studied the factors that affect decisions to approach or avoid targets, less work has investigated whether cognitive factors, such as episodic memory (e.g., details remembered about others from previous encounters) contribute to such judgments. Across two experiments, participants formed positive or negative impressions of targets based on their picture, a trait-implying behavior (Experiments 1 & 2), and their political ideology (conservative or liberal; Experiment 2). Memory and approach/avoidance decisions for targets were then measured. Results showed remembering negative impressions about targets increased avoidance responses, whereas remembering positive impressions increased approach responses. Strikingly, falsely remembering negative impressions for novel social targets (not seen before) also induced avoidance. Results suggest remembering negative information about targets, whether correctly or falsely, strongly influences future social judgments. Overall, these data support an episodic memory mechanism underlying subsequent approach/avoidance judgments, which is a rich area for future research.

Less Constrained Practice Tests Enhance the Testing Effect for Item Memory but Not Context Memory

Research shows that retrieval practice, compared with restudying, improves memory for previously learned information (i.e., testing effect); however, less work has examined testing effects for context memory (i.e., memory for associated details encountered at study). The present investigation examines the extent to which giving less information (i.e., fewer constraints) on a practice test improves item and context (source and font color) memory on a final test. Participants studied highly associated word pairs in red or green font. Participants were then shown the word pairs in a lower-constraint practice test (e.g., “brief-____”), higher-constraint practice test (e.g., “open-coels”), or restudy condition (e.g., “blaze-fire”). Results showed better item memory in the lower-constraint test than in both the higher-constraint test and restudy, but there was no difference for context memory across conditions. These findings demonstrate that using a less constrained practice test can increase the effectiveness of this learning strategy, but benefits may not transfer to contextual details.

STOP SHOUTING AT ME: The Influence of Case and Self-Referencing on Explicit and Implicit Memory

Evidence suggests that physical changes in word appearance, such as those written in all capital letters, and the use of effective encoding strategies, such as self-referential processing, improves memory. In this study we examined the extent both physical changes in word appearance (case) and encoding strategies engaged at study influence memory as measured by both explicit and implicit memory measures. Participants studied words written in upper and lower case under three encoding conditions (self-reference, semantic control, case judgment), which was followed by an implicit (word stem completion) and then an explicit (item and context) memory test. There were two primary results. First, analyses indicated a case enhancement effect for item memory where words written in upper case were better remembered than lower case, but only when participants were prompted to attend to the case of the word. Importantly, this case enhancement effect came at a cost to context memory for words written in upper case. Second, self-referencing increased explicit memory performance relative to control, but there was no effect on implicit memory. Overall, results suggest an item-context memory trade-off for words written in upper case, highlighting a potential downside to writing in all capital letters, and further, that both physical changes to the appearance of words and differing encoding strategies have a strong influence on explicit, but not implicit memory.

Value-directed memory effects on item and context memory

The ability to prioritize learning some information over others when that information is considered important or valuable is known as value-directed remembering. In these experiments, we investigate how value influences different aspects of memory, including item memory (memory for the to-be-learned materials) and context memory (memory for peripheral details that occurred when studying items) to get a better understanding of how people prioritize learning information. In this investigation, participants encoded words associated with a range of values (binned into higher, medium, and lower value in Experiment 1, and into higher and lower value in Experiment 2) for a subsequent memory test that measured item memory (Is this item old or new?) as well as both objective context memory (memory for an objectively verifiable contextual detail: In which voice was this item spoken?) and subjective context memory (How many visual, auditory, and extraneous thoughts/feelings can you remember associated with this item?). Results indicated that value influenced item memory but had no effect on objective context memory in both Experiments. In Experiment 2, results showed better subjective context memory for multiple episodic details for higher-value relative to lower-value materials. Overall, these findings suggest that value has a strong influence over some aspects of memory, but not others. This work gives a richer understanding of how people prioritize learning more important over less important information.

Examining the relationship between generation constraint and memory

Self-generated information is often better remembered than read information (the generation effect). Recent research, however, has shown that generating information under fewer experimental constraints (i.e., fewer limitations on what can be generated) can increase the magnitude of the generation effect. This study systematically varied generation constraint to better understand the effects of constraint on memory. Participants encoded associated cue-target word pairs (above-below) on either the left or right side of a computer monitor. At encoding, generation constraint was manipulated by systematically varying the number of letters given to participants to generate the target word (i.e., above-below; option-choic_; bank-mon__; etc.). At retrieval, participants were given either a recognition, cued recall, or free recall test measuring both item (target word) and context memory (location on the computer monitor). Using mixed-effects logistic regression analyses to control for item-selection effects (e.g., participants producing idiosyncratic targets in some conditions relative to others), results indicated that generation constraint significantly influenced item, but not context (location) memory. The relationship between generation constraint and memory performance, however, differed by the type of memory test administered: Recognition data revealed a curvilinear relationship; cued recall showed a negative, linear relationship; and free recall showed no significant relationship. Overall, these findings provide more evidence that generation constraint has a strong yet complex effect on different aspects of memory, and further delineates some boundary conditions of the influence of generation constraint on memory.

Effects of Survival Processing on Item and Context Memory: Enhanced Memory for Survival-Relevant Details

Due to the natural selection pressure, certain aspects of memory may have been selected to give humans a survival advantage. Research has demonstrated that processing information for survival relevance leads to better item memory (i.e., the content of information) compared to control conditions. The current study investigates the effects of survival processing on context memory (i.e., memory for peripheral episodic details) and item memory to better understand when the survival processing memory advantage emerges. In this study, participants studied pictures of objects in either a survival or moving (control) condition. Objects were presented in either a plausible color, for example, a red apple, or in an implausible color, such as a green pie. We chose this color plausibility manipulation because color is a detail that conveys information about the fitness (and other diagnostic information) about an item. After studying items, participants made item memory judgments (did you see this item before?) and two context memory judgments: color context (in which color did you see this item?) and source context (in which condition did you see this item?). Results indicated better item memory for materials processed in the survival relative to moving condition. Critically, for color context, there was a condition by plausibility interaction, where memory was best for plausibly colored items in the survival processing condition. There was no difference, however, in source context memory between the survival and moving conditions. These results suggest the survival processing memory advantage extends to contextual details that particularly reflect the survival utility of items such as color.