1
|
Nogueira JDS, Gomes TR, Secco DA, de Almeida IS, da Costa ASMF, Cobas RA, Costa Dos Santos G, Gomes MB, Porto LC. Type 1 Diabetes Brazilian patients exhibit reduced frequency of recent thymic emigrants in regulatory CD4 +CD25 +Foxp3 +T cells. Immunol Lett 2024; 267:106857. [PMID: 38604551 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2024.106857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
To control immune responses, regulatory CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells (Treg) maintain their wide and diverse repertoire through continuous arrival of recent thymic emigrants (RTE). However, during puberty, the activity of RTE starts to decline as a natural process of thymic involution, introducing consequences, not completely described, to the repertoire. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) patients show quantitative and qualitative impairments on the Treg cells. Our aim was to evaluate peripheral Treg and RTE cell frequencies, in T1D patients from two distinct age groups (young and adults) and verify if HLA phenotypes are concomitant associated. To this, blood samples from Brazilian twenty established T1D patients (12 young and 8 adults) and twenty-one healthy controls (11 young and 10 adults) were analyzed, by flow cytometry, to verify the percentages of CD4, Treg (CD4+CD25+Foxp3+) and the subsets of CD45RA+ (naive) and CD31+(RTE) within then. Furthermore, the HLA typing was also set. We observed that the young established T1D patients feature decreased frequencies in total Treg cells and naive RTE within Treg cells. Significant prevalence of HLA alleles, associated with risk, in T1D patients, was also identified. Performing a multivariate analysis, we confirmed that the cellular changes described offers significant variables that distinct T1D patients from the controls. Our data collectively highlight relevant aspects about homeostasis imbalances in the Treg cells of T1D patients, especially in young, and disease prognosis; that might contribute for future therapeutic strategies involving Treg cells manipulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeane de Souza Nogueira
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Thamires Rodrigues Gomes
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Danielle Angst Secco
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Inez Silva de Almeida
- Nursing Faculty, Department of Nursing Fundamentals, Ambulatory of the Adolescent Health Studies Center (NESA), Pedro Ernesto University Hospital, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Roberta Arnoldi Cobas
- Ambulatory of Diabetes, Piquet Carneiro Polyclinic, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gilson Costa Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Metabolomics (LabMet), IBRAG, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | - Marília Brito Gomes
- Ambulatory of Diabetes, Piquet Carneiro Polyclinic, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Luís Cristóvão Porto
- Immunogenetic and Histocompatibility Laboratory (HLA-UERJ), Technologic core in Tissue Repair and Histocompatibility (TIXUS), Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Quiros-Roldan E, Sottini A, Natali PG, Imberti L. The Impact of Immune System Aging on Infectious Diseases. Microorganisms 2024; 12:775. [PMID: 38674719 PMCID: PMC11051847 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12040775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune system aging is becoming a field of increasing public health interest because of prolonged life expectancy, which is not paralleled by an increase in health expectancy. As age progresses, innate and adaptive immune systems undergo changes, which are defined, respectively, as inflammaging and immune senescence. A wealth of available data demonstrates that these two conditions are closely linked, leading to a greater vulnerability of elderly subjects to viral, bacterial, and opportunistic infections as well as lower post-vaccination protection. To face this novel scenario, an in-depth assessment of the immune players involved in this changing epidemiology is demanded regarding the individual and concerted involvement of immune cells and mediators within endogenous and exogenous factors and co-morbidities. This review provides an overall updated description of the changes affecting the aging immune system, which may be of help in understanding the underlying mechanisms associated with the main age-associated infectious diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Quiros-Roldan
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, ASST- Spedali Civili and DSCS- University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Alessandra Sottini
- Clinical Chemistry Laboratory, Services Department, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Pier Giorgio Natali
- Mediterranean Task Force for Cancer Control (MTCC), Via Pizzo Bernina, 14, 00141 Rome, Italy;
| | - Luisa Imberti
- Section of Microbiology, University of Brescia, P. le Spedali Civili, 1, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Maymí VI, Zhu H, Jager M, Johnson S, Getchell R, Casey JW, Grenier JK, Wherry EJ, Smith NL, Grimson A, Rudd BD. Neonatal CD8+ T Cells Resist Exhaustion during Chronic Infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2024; 212:834-843. [PMID: 38231127 PMCID: PMC11298781 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2300396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Chronic viral infections, such as HIV and hepatitis C virus, represent a major public health problem. Although it is well understood that neonates and adults respond differently to chronic viral infections, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. In this study, we transferred neonatal and adult CD8+ T cells into a mouse model of chronic infection (lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus clone 13) and dissected out the key cell-intrinsic differences that alter their ability to protect the host. Interestingly, we found that neonatal CD8+ T cells preferentially became effector cells early in chronic infection compared with adult CD8+ T cells and expressed higher levels of genes associated with cell migration and effector cell differentiation. During the chronic phase of infection, the neonatal cells retained more immune functionality and expressed lower levels of surface markers and genes related to exhaustion. Because the neonatal cells protect from viral replication early in chronic infection, the altered differentiation trajectories of neonatal and adult CD8+ T cells is functionally significant. Together, our work demonstrates how cell-intrinsic differences between neonatal and adult CD8+ T cells influence key cell fate decisions during chronic infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Viviana I. Maymí
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Hongya Zhu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Mason Jager
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Shawn Johnson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Rodman Getchell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - James W. Casey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Jennifer K. Grenier
- Transcriptional Regulation and Expression Facility, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - E. John Wherry
- Institute for Immunology and Immune Health, and Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Norah L. Smith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Andrew Grimson
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Brian D. Rudd
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Stepanenko AA, Sosnovtseva AO, Valikhov MP, Chernysheva AA, Abramova OV, Naumenko VA, Chekhonin VP. The need for paradigm shift: prognostic significance and implications of standard therapy-related systemic immunosuppression in glioblastoma for immunotherapy and oncolytic virotherapy. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1326757. [PMID: 38390330 PMCID: PMC10881776 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1326757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite significant advances in our knowledge regarding the genetics and molecular biology of gliomas over the past two decades and hundreds of clinical trials, no effective therapeutic approach has been identified for adult patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma, and overall survival remains dismal. Great hopes are now placed on combination immunotherapy. In clinical trials, immunotherapeutics are generally tested after standard therapy (radiation, temozolomide, and steroid dexamethasone) or concurrently with temozolomide and/or steroids. Only a minor subset of patients with progressive/recurrent glioblastoma have benefited from immunotherapies. In this review, we comprehensively discuss standard therapy-related systemic immunosuppression and lymphopenia, their prognostic significance, and the implications for immunotherapy/oncolytic virotherapy. The effectiveness of immunotherapy and oncolytic virotherapy (viro-immunotherapy) critically depends on the activity of the host immune cells. The absolute counts, ratios, and functional states of different circulating and tumor-infiltrating immune cell subsets determine the net immune fitness of patients with cancer and may have various effects on tumor progression, therapeutic response, and survival outcomes. Although different immunosuppressive mechanisms operate in patients with glioblastoma/gliomas at presentation, the immunological competence of patients may be significantly compromised by standard therapy, exacerbating tumor-related systemic immunosuppression. Standard therapy affects diverse immune cell subsets, including dendritic, CD4+, CD8+, natural killer (NK), NKT, macrophage, neutrophil, and myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC). Systemic immunosuppression and lymphopenia limit the immune system's ability to target glioblastoma. Changes in the standard therapy are required to increase the success of immunotherapies. Steroid use, high neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), and low post-treatment total lymphocyte count (TLC) are significant prognostic factors for shorter survival in patients with glioblastoma in retrospective studies; however, these clinically relevant variables are rarely reported and correlated with response and survival in immunotherapy studies (e.g., immune checkpoint inhibitors, vaccines, and oncolytic viruses). Our analysis should help in the development of a more rational clinical trial design and decision-making regarding the treatment to potentially improve the efficacy of immunotherapy or oncolytic virotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aleksei A. Stepanenko
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, V. P. Serbsky National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Narcology, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Medical Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Translational Medicine, N.I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anastasiia O. Sosnovtseva
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, V. P. Serbsky National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Narcology, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Marat P. Valikhov
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, V. P. Serbsky National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Narcology, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Medical Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Translational Medicine, N.I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anastasia A. Chernysheva
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, V. P. Serbsky National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Narcology, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga V. Abramova
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, V. P. Serbsky National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Narcology, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Victor A. Naumenko
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, V. P. Serbsky National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Narcology, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir P. Chekhonin
- Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, V. P. Serbsky National Medical Research Center of Psychiatry and Narcology, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
- Department of Medical Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Translational Medicine, N.I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Buckley DJ, Sharma S, Joseph B, Fayyaz AH, Canizales A, Terrebonne KJ, Trott DW. Early life thymectomy induces arterial dysfunction in mice. GeroScience 2024; 46:1035-1051. [PMID: 37354388 PMCID: PMC10828352 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-023-00853-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging of the arteries is characterized by increased large artery stiffness and impaired endothelium-dependent dilation. We have previously shown that in old (22-24 month) mice T cells accumulate within aorta and mesentery. We have also shown that pharmacologic and genetic deletion of these T cells ameliorates age-related arterial dysfunction. These data indicate that T cells contribute to arterial aging; however, it is unknown if aged T cells alone can induce arterial dysfunction in otherwise young mice. To produce an aged-like T cell phenotype, mice were thymectomized at three-weeks of age or were left with their thymus intact. At 9 months of age, thymectomized mice exhibited greater proportions of both CD4 + and CD8 + memory T cells compared to controls in the blood. Similar changes were observed in the T cells accumulating in the aorta and mesentery. We also observed greater numbers of proinflammatory cytokine producing T cells in the aorta and mesentery. The phenotypic T cell changes in the blood, aorta and mesentery of thymectomized mice were similar to those observed when we compared young (4-6 month) to old thymus intact mice. Along with these alterations, compared to controls, thymectomized mice exhibited augmented large artery stiffness and greater aortic collagen deposition as well as impaired mesenteric artery endothelium dependent dilation due to blunted nitric oxide bioavailability. These results indicate that early life thymectomy results in arterial dysfunction and suggest that an aged-like T cell phenotype alone is sufficient to induce arterial dysfunction in otherwise young mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David J Buckley
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, 655 W. Mitchell St., Arlington, TX, 76010, USA
| | - Sunita Sharma
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, 655 W. Mitchell St., Arlington, TX, 76010, USA
| | - Blessy Joseph
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, 655 W. Mitchell St., Arlington, TX, 76010, USA
| | - Alia H Fayyaz
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, 655 W. Mitchell St., Arlington, TX, 76010, USA
| | - Alexandra Canizales
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, 655 W. Mitchell St., Arlington, TX, 76010, USA
| | - Konner J Terrebonne
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, 655 W. Mitchell St., Arlington, TX, 76010, USA
| | - Daniel W Trott
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, 655 W. Mitchell St., Arlington, TX, 76010, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
May JF, Kelly RG, Suen AYW, Kim J, Kim J, Anderson CC, Rayat GR, Baldwin TA. Establishment of CD8+ T Cell Thymic Central Tolerance to Tissue-Restricted Antigen Requires PD-1. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2024; 212:271-283. [PMID: 37982696 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Highly self-reactive T cells are censored from the repertoire by both central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms upon receipt of high-affinity TCR signals. Clonal deletion is considered a major driver of central tolerance; however, other mechanisms such as induction of regulatory T cells and functional impairment have been described. An understanding of the interplay between these different central tolerance mechanisms is still lacking. We previously showed that impaired clonal deletion to a model tissue-restricted Ag did not compromise tolerance. In this study, we determined that murine T cells that failed clonal deletion were rendered functionally impaired in the thymus. Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) was induced in the thymus and was required to establish cell-intrinsic tolerance to tissue-restricted Ag in CD8+ thymocytes independently of clonal deletion. In bone marrow chimeras, tolerance was not observed in PD-L1-deficient recipients, but tolerance was largely maintained following adoptive transfer of tolerant thymocytes or T cells to PD-L1-deficient recipients. However, CRISPR-mediated ablation of PD-1 in tolerant T cells resulted in broken tolerance, suggesting different PD-1 signaling requirements for establishing versus maintaining tolerance. Finally, we showed that chronic exposure to high-affinity Ag supported the long-term maintenance of tolerance. Taken together, our study identifies a critical role for PD-1 in establishing central tolerance in autoreactive T cells that escape clonal deletion. It also sheds light on potential mechanisms of action of anti-PD-1 pathway immune checkpoint blockade and the development of immune-related adverse events.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia F May
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rees G Kelly
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Alexander Y W Suen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jeongbee Kim
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jeongwoo Kim
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Colin C Anderson
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Gina R Rayat
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Ray Rajotte Surgical-Medical Research Institute, AB Diabetes and Transplant Institutes, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Troy A Baldwin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Li D, Yao H, Han X, Cao X, Du X, Meng F, Bu G, Kong F, Song T, Zeng X. Active immunization against gonadotropin-releasing hormone affects thymic T cell production, migration, and colonization in male rat lymphoid tissue. J Reprod Immunol 2023; 159:104132. [PMID: 37591181 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2023.104132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
Active immunization against gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) inhibits animal reproduction and has become a friendly alternative to surgical castration, which has been reported to affect the proportion of thymic T cell subpopulations. The effects of active immunization against GnRH on T cell migration from the thymus to the periphery and T cell distribution in lymphoid tissues remain unclear. Here, we showed that active immunization against GnRH increased thymic size and weight, enlarged the number of thymocytes, and enhanced CD4+ recent thymic emigrants (RTEs) and CD8+ RTEs migration to the blood and spleen. Active immunization against GnRH had no significant effect on naïve CD4+, naïve CD8+, CD4+ memory/activated, or CD8+ memory/activated T cells. In addition, active immunization against GnRH increased the proportion of CD3+ T cells in the spleen and lymph nodes. The percentages of CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ T cells in the blood, spleen, and lymph nodes were not significantly affected by GnRH immunization. Overall, these results enhance our understanding of thymic T cell production, migration, and colonization in rat lymphoid tissues affected by GnRH immunization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dong Li
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Huan Yao
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Xinfa Han
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Xiaohan Cao
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Xiaogang Du
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Fengyan Meng
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Guixian Bu
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Fanli Kong
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China
| | - Tianzeng Song
- Institute of animal science, Tibet academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Science, Lhasa 850009, Xizang, PR China.
| | - Xianyin Zeng
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an 625014, Sichuan, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Torow N, Hand TW, Hornef MW. Programmed and environmental determinants driving neonatal mucosal immune development. Immunity 2023; 56:485-499. [PMID: 36921575 PMCID: PMC10079302 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2023.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023]
Abstract
The mucosal immune system of neonates goes through successive, non-redundant phases that support the developmental needs of the infant and ultimately establish immune homeostasis. These phases are informed by environmental cues, including dietary and microbial stimuli, but also evolutionary developmental programming that functions independently of external stimuli. The immune response to exogenous stimuli is tightly regulated during early life; thresholds are set within this neonatal "window of opportunity" that govern how the immune system will respond to diet, the microbiota, and pathogenic microorganisms in the future. Thus, changes in early-life exposure, such as breastfeeding or environmental and microbial stimuli, influence immunological and metabolic homeostasis and the risk of developing diseases such as asthma/allergy and obesity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Torow
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, RWTH University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Timothy W Hand
- Pediatrics Department, Infectious Disease Section, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA.
| | - Mathias W Hornef
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, RWTH University Hospital, Aachen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
The Proportion of Recent Thymic Emigrant Lymphocytes in Breastfed and Formula Fed Term Neonates. Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15041028. [PMID: 36839384 PMCID: PMC9967012 DOI: 10.3390/nu15041028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent thymic emigrants (RTEs) represent a distinct T cell subset characterized by a tolerance-prone status. We have recently demonstrated that the proportion of regulatory T cells (Tregs) is nearly two-fold higher in exclusively breastfed compared with exclusively formula-fed neonates. However, it has been unknown whether the type of milk is also associated with the proportion of the RTE cell compartment. Cord blood (CB) and, at three weeks of age, peripheral venous blood samples were collected from 19 healthy-term neonates. A maternal blood sample was also taken. The proportion of RTEs, naïve CD4 cells, naïve RTEs, and Tregs was analyzed by flow cytometry in blood samples. RTE cell proportions were comparable between CB and 3 weeks. At both time points, there was no difference in the proportion of naïve CD4 cells, RTE CD4 cells, and naïve RTE CD4 cells between the feeding groups. The fold change of RTE cells between birth and three weeks of life was highest in mixed-fed babies. Since RTE counts were comparable across the feeding groups at birth, this most likely reflects a postnatal upregulation, to which the dual antigenic exposure to both non-inherited maternal antigens via breastmilk, as well as to other environmental antigens in formula milk, may contribute.
Collapse
|
10
|
Metabolism-dependent ferroptosis promotes mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation in CD4 + T lymphocytes in HIV-infected immune non-responders. EBioMedicine 2022; 86:104382. [PMID: 36462403 PMCID: PMC9718960 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND HIV immune non-responders (INRs) are described as a failure to reestablish a pool of CD4+ T lymphocytes (CD4 cells) after antiretroviral therapy (ART), which is related to poor clinical results. Ferroptosis is a newly discovered form of cell death characterised by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The mechanism of unrecoverable CD4 cells in INRs and whether ferroptosis plays a role are not fully understood. METHODS Ninety-two people living with HIV (PLHIVs) who experienced four-year ART with sustained viral suppression, including 27 INRs, 34 partial responders (PRs), and 31 complete responders (CRs); and 26 uninfected control participants (UCs) were analysed for 16 immune parameters with flow cytometry. Then plasma lipid, iron and oxidation, and antioxidant indicators were detected by ELISA, and CD4 cells were sorted out and visualised under transmission electron microscopy. Finally, ferroptosis inhibitors were added, and alterations in CD4 cell phenotype and function were observed. FINDINGS We found decreased recent thymic emigrants (RTE), over-activation and over-proliferation phenotypes, diminished killing function, decreased IL-7R and more severe inflammation; increased lipid peroxidation in the mitochondria and disruptions of the mitochondrial structure, showing typical features of ferroptosis in CD4 cells in INRs. Additionally, ferroptosis inhibitors could reduce inflammation and repair mitochondrial damage. Meanwhile, ELISA results showed increased plasma free fatty acids (FFA) and an imbalance of oxidative and antioxidant systems in INRs. Flow cytometry results displayed alterations of both transferrin receptor (CD71) and lipid transporter (CD36) expressions on the surface of CD4 cells. Mechanistically, there was a stronger correlation between CD36 expression and mitochondrial lipid peroxidation production, ferroptosis makers, and inflammation indicators; while amino acid transporter (CD98) was more related to killing functions; and CD71 was more closely related to activation status in CD4 cells. INTERPRETATION Cellular metabolism was closely correlated with its diverse functions in INRs. Ferroptosis was observed in CD4 cells of INRs, and inhibiting ferroptosis through modulating mitochondrial disorders and inflammation may offer an alternative immunological strategy for reinvigorating CD4 cells in INRs. FUNDING This research was supported by the 13th Five-year Plan, Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2018ZX10302-102), Beijing Municipal Administration of Hospitals' Ascent Plan (DFL20191802), and Beijing Municipal Administration of Hospitals Clinical Medicine Development of Special Funding Support (ZYLX202126).
Collapse
|
11
|
Dessalles R, Pan Y, Xia M, Maestrini D, D'Orsogna MR, Chou T. How Naive T-Cell Clone Counts Are Shaped By Heterogeneous Thymic Output and Homeostatic Proliferation. Front Immunol 2022; 12:735135. [PMID: 35250963 PMCID: PMC8891377 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.735135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The specificity of T cells is that each T cell has only one T cell receptor (TCR). A T cell clone represents a collection of T cells with the same TCR sequence. Thus, the number of different T cell clones in an organism reflects the number of different T cell receptors (TCRs) that arise from recombination of the V(D)J gene segments during T cell development in the thymus. TCR diversity and more specifically, the clone abundance distribution, are important factors in immune functions. Specific recombination patterns occur more frequently than others while subsequent interactions between TCRs and self-antigens are known to trigger proliferation and sustain naive T cell survival. These processes are TCR-dependent, leading to clone-dependent thymic export and naive T cell proliferation rates. We describe the heterogeneous steady-state population of naive T cells (those that have not yet been antigenically triggered) by using a mean-field model of a regulated birth-death-immigration process. After accounting for random sampling, we investigate how TCR-dependent heterogeneities in immigration and proliferation rates affect the shape of clone abundance distributions (the number of different clones that are represented by a specific number of cells, or “clone counts”). By using reasonable physiological parameter values and fitting predicted clone counts to experimentally sampled clone abundances, we show that realistic levels of heterogeneity in immigration rates cause very little change to predicted clone-counts, but that modest heterogeneity in proliferation rates can generate the observed clone abundances. Our analysis provides constraints among physiological parameters that are necessary to yield predictions that qualitatively match the data. Assumptions of the model and potentially other important mechanistic factors are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renaud Dessalles
- Department of Computational Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Yunbei Pan
- Department of Mathematics, California State University at Northridge, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Mingtao Xia
- Department of Mathematics, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Davide Maestrini
- Department of Computational Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Maria R D'Orsogna
- Department of Computational Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Department of Mathematics, California State University at Northridge, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Tom Chou
- Department of Computational Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Department of Mathematics, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Ao YQ, Jiang JH, Gao J, Wang HK, Ding JY. Recent thymic emigrants as the bridge between thymoma and autoimmune diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2022; 1877:188730. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2022.188730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
13
|
Heikkilä N, Hetemäki I, Sormunen S, Isoniemi H, Kekäläinen E, Saramäki J, Arstila TP. Peripheral differentiation patterns of human T cells. Eur J Immunol 2022; 52:882-894. [PMID: 35307831 PMCID: PMC9313577 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202149465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Long-term T-cell memory is dependent on the maintenance of memory T cells in the lymphoid tissues, and at the surface interfaces that provide entry routes for pathogens. However, much of the current information on human T-cell memory is based on analyzing circulating T cells. Here, we have studied the distribution and age-related changes of memory T-cell subsets in samples from blood, mesenteric LNs, spleen, and ileum, obtained from donors ranging in age from 5 days to 67 years of age. Our data show that the main reservoir of polyclonal naive cells is found in the LNs, and the resting memory subsets capable of self-renewal are also prominent there. In contrast, nondividing but functionally active memory subsets dominate the spleen, and especially the ileum. In general, the replacement of naive cells with memory subsets continues throughout our period of observation, with no apparent plateau. In conclusion, the analysis of lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues reveals a dynamic pattern of changes distinct to each tissue, and with substantial differences between CD4+ and CD8+ compartments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nelli Heikkilä
- Translational Immunology Research Program (TRIMM), Research Programs Unit (RPU), Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Iivo Hetemäki
- Translational Immunology Research Program (TRIMM), Research Programs Unit (RPU), Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Silja Sormunen
- Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Helena Isoniemi
- Division of Transplantation and Liver Surgery, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eliisa Kekäläinen
- Translational Immunology Research Program (TRIMM), Research Programs Unit (RPU), Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Faculty of Medicine, HUSLAB Clinical Microbiology, University of Helsinki, and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jari Saramäki
- Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - T Petteri Arstila
- Translational Immunology Research Program (TRIMM), Research Programs Unit (RPU), Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Şentürk G, Ng YY, Eltan SB, Başer D, Ogulur I, Altındirek D, Fırtına S, Yılmaz H, Kocamış B, Kıykım A, Camcıoğlu Y, Ar MC, Sudutan T, Beken S, Temel ŞG, Alanay Y, Karakoc-Aydiner E, Barış S, Özen A, Özbek U, Sayitoğlu M, Hatırnaz Ng Ö. Determining T and B Cell development by TREC/KREC analysis in primary immunodeficiency patients and healthy controls. Scand J Immunol 2021; 95:e13130. [PMID: 34951041 DOI: 10.1111/sji.13130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
T cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) and kappa-deleting excision circles (KRECs) are DNA fragments potentially indicative of T and B cell development, respectively. Recent thymic emigrants (RTEs) are a subset of peripheral cells that may also represent thymic function. Here, we investigated TREC/KREC copy numbers by quantitative real-time PCR in the peripheral blood of patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs, n = 145) and that of healthy controls (HCs, n = 86) and assessed the correlation between RTEs and TREC copy numbers. We found that TREC copy numbers were significantly lower in children and adults with PIDs (P < .0001 and P < .002, respectively) as compared with their respective age-matched HCs. A moderate correlation was observed between TREC copies and RTE numbers among children with PID (r = .5114, P < .01), whereas no significant correlation was detected between RTE values and TREC content in the HCs (r = .0205, P = .9208). Additionally, we determined TREC and KREC copy numbers in DNA isolated from the Guthrie cards of 200 newborns and showed that this method is applicable to DNA isolated from both peripheral blood samples and dried blood spots, with the two sample types showing comparable TREC and KREC values. We further showed that RTE values are not always reliable markers of T cell output. Although additional confirmatory studies with larger cohorts are needed, our results provide thresholds for TREC/KREC copy numbers for different age groups.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gizem Şentürk
- Department of Genetics, Health Sciences Institute, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey.,Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, Acıbadem Mehmet Ali Aydınlar University, Istanbul, Turkey.,Department of Genetics, Aziz Sancar Institute of Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yuk Yin Ng
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Istanbul Bilgi University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sevgi Bilgiç Eltan
- The Isıl Berat Barlan Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.,Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Pendik Research and Training Hospital, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Dilek Başer
- The Isıl Berat Barlan Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.,Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Pendik Research and Training Hospital, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ismail Ogulur
- The Isıl Berat Barlan Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.,Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Didem Altındirek
- Department of Genetics, Aziz Sancar Institute of Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sinem Fırtına
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Science, Istanbul Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Hülya Yılmaz
- Division of Hematology, Ankara Medical Faculty, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Burcu Kocamış
- The Isıl Berat Barlan Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.,Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ayça Kıykım
- Division of Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Children's Health and Disease, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yıldız Camcıoğlu
- Division of Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Children's Health and Disease, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Muhlis Cem Ar
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tuğçe Sudutan
- Department of Genetics, Aziz Sancar Institute of Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Serdar Beken
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Acıbadem Mehmet Ali Aydınlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Şehime G Temel
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey.,Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey.,Department of Translational Medicine, Institute of Health Sciences, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Yasemin Alanay
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Acıbadem Mehmet Ali Aydınlar University, Istanbul, Turkey.,Rare Diseases and Orphan Drugs Application and Research Center, Acıbadem University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Elif Karakoc-Aydiner
- The Isıl Berat Barlan Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.,Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Safa Barış
- The Isıl Berat Barlan Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.,Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Özen
- The Isıl Berat Barlan Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.,Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Uğur Özbek
- Rare Diseases and Orphan Drugs Application and Research Center, Acıbadem University, Istanbul, Turkey.,Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Acıbadem Mehmet Ali Aydınlar University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Müge Sayitoğlu
- Department of Genetics, Aziz Sancar Institute of Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Özden Hatırnaz Ng
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, Acıbadem Mehmet Ali Aydınlar University, Istanbul, Turkey.,Department of Genetics, Aziz Sancar Institute of Experimental Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey.,Rare Diseases and Orphan Drugs Application and Research Center, Acıbadem University, Istanbul, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
I've had serious misgivings about writing this article, because from living the experience day by day, it's hard to believe my accomplishments merit the attention. To skirt this roadblock, I forced myself to pretend I was in a conversation with my trainees, trying to distill the central driving forces of my career in science. The below chronicles my evolution from would-be astronaut/ballerina to budding developmental biologist to devoted T cell immunologist. It traces my work from a focus on intrathymic events that mold developing T cells into self-major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-restricted lymphocytes to extrathymic events that fine-tune the T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire and impose the finishing touches on T cell maturation. It is a story of a few personal attributes multiplied by generous mentors, good luck, hard work, perseverance, and knowing when to step down. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Immunology, Volume 40 is April 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pamela J Fink
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Shelyakin PV, Lupyr KR, Egorov ES, Kofiadi IA, Staroverov DB, Kasatskaya SA, Kriukova VV, Shagina IA, Merzlyak EM, Nakonechnaya TO, Latysheva EA, Manto IA, Khaitov MR, Lukyanov SA, Chudakov DM, Britanova OV. Naïve Regulatory T Cell Subset Is Altered in X-Linked Agammaglobulinemia. Front Immunol 2021; 12:697307. [PMID: 34489944 PMCID: PMC8417104 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.697307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The interplay between T- and B-cell compartments during naïve, effector and memory T cell maturation is critical for a balanced immune response. Primary B-cell immunodeficiency arising from X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) offers a model to explore B cell impact on T cell subsets, starting from the thymic selection. Here we investigated characteristics of naïve and effector T cell subsets in XLA patients, revealing prominent alterations in the corresponding T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoires. We observed immunosenescence in terms of decreased diversity of naïve CD4+ and CD8+ TCR repertoires in XLA donors. The most substantial alterations were found within naïve CD4+ subsets, and we have investigated these in greater detail. In particular, increased clonality and convergence, along with shorter CDR3 regions, suggested narrower focused antigen-specific maturation of thymus-derived naïve Treg (CD4+CD45RA+CD27+CD25+) in the absence of B cells - normally presenting diverse self and commensal antigens. The naïve Treg proportion among naïve CD4 T cells was decreased in XLA patients, supporting the concept of impaired thymic naïve Treg selection. Furthermore, the naïve Treg subset showed prominent differences at the transcriptome level, including increased expression of genes specific for antigen-presenting and myeloid cells. Altogether, our findings suggest active B cell involvement in CD4 T cell subsets maturation, including B cell-dependent expansion of the naïve Treg TCR repertoire that enables better control of self-reactive T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pavel V Shelyakin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ksenia R Lupyr
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Center of Life Sciences, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Evgeny S Egorov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ilya A Kofiadi
- FSBI "NRC Institute of Immunology" FMBA of Russia, Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitriy B Staroverov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Institute of Translational Medicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sofya A Kasatskaya
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Center of Life Sciences, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia.,Institute of Translational Medicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Valeriia V Kriukova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Center of Life Sciences, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina A Shagina
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Institute of Translational Medicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ekaterina M Merzlyak
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Institute of Translational Medicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatiana O Nakonechnaya
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Irina A Manto
- FSBI "NRC Institute of Immunology" FMBA of Russia, Moscow, Russia
| | - Musa R Khaitov
- FSBI "NRC Institute of Immunology" FMBA of Russia, Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey A Lukyanov
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitriy M Chudakov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,Center of Life Sciences, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia.,Institute of Translational Medicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga V Britanova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Auma AWN, Shive CL, Lange A, Damjanovska S, Kowal C, Zebrowski E, Pandiyan P, Wilson B, Kalayjian RC, Canaday DH, Anthony DD. Naïve CD4+ T Cell Lymphopenia and Apoptosis in Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection Is Driven by the CD31+ Subset and Is Partially Normalized in Direct-Acting Antiviral Treated Persons. Front Immunol 2021; 12:641230. [PMID: 33912168 PMCID: PMC8075159 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.641230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The mechanisms underlying naïve CD4+ lymphopenia during chronic Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) infection are unclear. Whether direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy restores peripheral naïve CD4+ T cell numbers and function is unknown. Methods We enumerated frequencies and counts of peripheral naïve CD4+, CD4+CD31+ and CD4+CD31- T cells by flow cytometry in a cross sectional analysis comparing chronic HCV infected (n=34), DAA-treated(n=29), and age-range matched controls (n=25), as well as in a longitudinal cohort of HCV DAA treated persons (n=16). The cross-sectional cohort was stratified by cirrhosis state. Cell apoptosis/survival (AnnexinV+7AAD+/BCL-2 labeling) and cell cycle entry (Ki67 expression) of CD31+ and CD31- naïve CD4+ T cells was analyzed directly ex vivo and following 3 and 5 days of in vitro culture with media, interleukin (IL) -7 or CD3/CD28 activator. Results In the cross-sectional cohort, naïve CD4+ proportions were lower in chronic HCV infected persons compared to controls and DAA-treated persons, an effect in part attributed to cirrhosis. Age was associated with naïve cell counts and proportions in HCV infected and treated persons as well. Naïve CD4+ cell proportions negatively correlated with plasma levels of soluble CD14 following therapy in DAA-treated persons. Naïve CD4+ cells from HCV infected persons exhibited greater direct ex vivo apoptosis and cell-cycling compared to cells from DAA-treated persons and controls, and this was localized to the CD4+CD31+ subset. On the other hand, no remarkable differences in expression of BCL-2 or IL-7 Receptor (CD127) at baseline or following in vitro media or IL7 containing culture were observed. In the longitudinal cohort, naïve CD4+CD31+/CD31- ratio tended to increase 24 weeks after DAA therapy initiation. Conclusions Activation and apoptosis of peripheral naïve CD4+CD31+ T cells appear to contribute to naïve CD4+ lymphopenia in chronic HCV infection, and this defect is partially reversible with HCV DAA therapy. Age and cirrhosis -associated naïve CD4+ lymphopenia is present both before and after HCV DAA therapy. These findings have implications for restoration of host immune function after DAA therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ann W N Auma
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Carey L Shive
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,GRECC, VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Alyssa Lange
- GRECC, VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Sofi Damjanovska
- GRECC, VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Corinne Kowal
- GRECC, VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | | | - Pushpa Pandiyan
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Brigid Wilson
- GRECC, VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Robert C Kalayjian
- Department of Medicine, MetroHealth Medical Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - David H Canaday
- GRECC, VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Donald D Anthony
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,GRECC, VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Department of Medicine, MetroHealth Medical Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Gao Y, Liu R, He C, Basile J, Vesterlund M, Wahren-Herlenius M, Espinoza A, Hokka-Zakrisson C, Zadjali F, Yoshimura A, Karlsson M, Carow B, Rottenberg ME. SOCS3 Expression by Thymic Stromal Cells Is Required for Normal T Cell Development. Front Immunol 2021; 12:642173. [PMID: 33815395 PMCID: PMC8012910 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.642173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) is a major regulator of immune responses and inflammation as it negatively regulates cytokine signaling. Here, the role of SOCS3 in thymic T cell formation was studied in Socs3fl/flActin-creER mice (Δsocs3) with a tamoxifen inducible and ubiquitous Socs3 deficiency. Δsocs3 thymi showed a 90% loss of cellularity and altered cortico-medullary organization. Thymocyte differentiation and proliferation was impaired at the early double negative (CD4-CD8-) cell stage and apoptosis was increased during the double positive (CD4+CD8+) cell stage, resulting in the reduction of recent thymic emigrants in peripheral organs. Using bone marrow chimeras, transplanting thymic organoids and using mice deficient of SOCS3 in thymocytes we found that expression in thymic stromal cells rather than in thymocytes was critical for T cell development. We found that SOCS3 in thymic epithelial cells (TECs) binds to the E3 ubiquitin ligase TRIM 21 and that Trim21−/− mice showed increased thymic cellularity. Δsocs3 TECs showed alterations in the expression of genes involved in positive and negative selection and lympho-stromal interactions. SOCS3-dependent signal inhibition of the common gp130 subunit of the IL-6 receptor family was redundant for T cell formation. Together, SOCS3 expression in thymic stroma cells is critical for T cell development and for maintenance of thymus architecture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Gao
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ruining Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Chenfei He
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Juan Basile
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mattias Vesterlund
- SciLife Lab, Department of Oncology-Patohology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marie Wahren-Herlenius
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Broegelmann Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | | | | | - Fahad Zadjali
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
| | - Akihiko Yoshimura
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mikael Karlsson
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Berit Carow
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin E Rottenberg
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Singh J, Mohtashami M, Anderson G, Zúñiga-Pflücker JC. Thymic Engraftment by in vitro-Derived Progenitor T Cells in Young and Aged Mice. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1850. [PMID: 32973763 PMCID: PMC7462002 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
T cells play a critical role in mediating antigen-specific and long-term immunity against viral and bacterial pathogens, and their development relies on the highly specialized thymic microenvironment. T cell immunodeficiency can be acquired in the form of inborn errors, or can result from perturbations to the thymus due to aging or irradiation/chemotherapy required for cancer treatment. Hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) from compatible donors is a cornerstone for the treatment of hematological malignancies and immunodeficiency. Although it can restore a functional immune system, profound impairments exist in recovery of the T cell compartment. T cells remain absent or low in number for many months after HSCT, depending on a variety of factors including the age of the recipient. While younger patients have a shorter refractory period, the prolonged T cell recovery observed in older patients can lead to a higher risk of opportunistic infections and increased predisposition to relapse. Thus, strategies for enhancing T cell recovery in aged individuals are needed to counter thymic damage induced by radiation and chemotherapy toxicities, in addition to naturally occurring age-related thymic involution. Preclinical results have shown that robust and rapid long-term thymic reconstitution can be achieved when progenitor T cells, generated in vitro from HSCs, are co-administered during HSCT. Progenitor T cells appear to rely on lymphostromal crosstalk via receptor activator of NF-κB (RANK) and RANK-ligand (RANKL) interactions, creating chemokine-rich niches within the cortex and medulla that likely favor the recruitment of bone marrow-derived thymus seeding progenitors. Here, we employed preclinical mouse models to demonstrate that in vitro-generated progenitor T cells can effectively engraft involuted aged thymuses, which could potentially improve T cell recovery. The utility of progenitor T cells for aged recipients positions them as a promising cellular therapy for immune recovery and intrathymic repair following irradiation and chemotherapy, even in a post-involution thymus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Graham Anderson
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Juan Carlos Zúñiga-Pflücker
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Pratama A, Schnell A, Mathis D, Benoist C. Developmental and cellular age direct conversion of CD4+ T cells into RORγ+ or Helios+ colon Treg cells. J Exp Med 2020; 217:jem.20190428. [PMID: 31685531 PMCID: PMC7037252 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20190428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RORγ+ and Helios+ Treg cells in the colon are phenotypically and functionally distinct, but their origins and relationships are poorly understood. In monocolonized and normal mice, single-cell RNA-seq revealed sharing of TCR clonotypes between these Treg cell populations, potentially denoting a common progenitor. In a polyclonal Treg cell replacement system, naive conventional CD4+ (Tconv) cells, but not pre-existing tTregs, could differentiate into RORγ+ pTregs upon interaction with gut microbiota. A smaller proportion of Tconv cells converted into Helios+ pTreg cells, but these dominated when the Tconv cells originated from preweaning mice. T cells from infant mice were predominantly immature, insensitive to RORγ-inducing bacterial cues and to IL6, and showed evidence of higher TCR-transmitted signals, which are also characteristics of recent thymic emigrants (RTEs). Correspondingly, transfer of adult RTEs or Nur77high Tconv cells mainly yielded Helios+ pTreg cells, recapitulating the infant/adult difference. Thus, CD4+ Tconv cells can differentiate into both RORγ+ and Helios+ pTreg cells, providing a physiological adaptation of colonic Treg cells as a function of the age of the cell or of the individual.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alvin Pratama
- Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.,Evergrande Center for Immunological Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Alexandra Schnell
- Evergrande Center for Immunological Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Diane Mathis
- Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.,Evergrande Center for Immunological Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Christophe Benoist
- Department of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.,Evergrande Center for Immunological Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Giltiay NV, Giordano D, Clark EA. The Plasticity of Newly Formed B Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 203:3095-3104. [PMID: 31818922 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Newly formed B cells (NF-B cells) that emerge from the bone marrow to the periphery have often been referred to as immature or transitional B cells. However, NF-B cells have several striking characteristics, including a distinct BCR repertoire, high expression of AID, high sensitivity to PAMPs, and the ability to produce cytokines. A number of findings do not support their designation as immature because NF-B cells have the potential to become Ab-producing cells and to undergo class-switch recombination. In this review, we provide a fresh perspective on NF-B cell functions and describe some of the signals driving their activation. We summarize growing evidence supporting a role for NF-B cells in protection against infections and as a potential source of autoantibody-producing cells in autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia V Giltiay
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109; and
| | - Daniela Giordano
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Edward A Clark
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Associations between recent thymic emigrants and CD4+ T-cell recovery after short-term antiretroviral therapy initiation. AIDS 2020; 34:501-511. [PMID: 31794524 PMCID: PMC7050791 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000002458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text Objective: Around 20–30% of HIV-infected individuals (HIV+) on successful antiretroviral therapy (ART) fail to normalize their CD4+ T-cell counts. Various factors could contribute to the lack of immune reconstitution, one of them being thymic insufficiency. We aimed to explore associations between recent thymic emigrants (RTEs) and CD4+ T-cell recovery. Design: ART-naive HIV+ individuals who started ART with advanced AIDS were selected. Good versus poor immune reconstitution was defined by CD4+ gains above or below 100 CD4+ T cells/μl. The follow-up period was 6 months. Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated and flow cytometry was used to characterize RTEs as the fraction of naive CD4+ T cells expressing CD31+, the platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule. Markers of cellular activation, senescence, exhaustion and cycling were also assessed. Results: After 6 months on ART, HIV+ individuals with good immune reconstitution had higher absolute numbers of RTEs, compared with those with poor immune reconstitution, and these strongly correlated with CD4+ gains in those individuals with good immune reconstitution but not with poor immune reconstitution. We also found that CD8+ T-cell immune activation decreased as early as 2 months post-ART initiation in individuals with good immune reconstitution, but only at month 6 post-ART in individuals with poor immune reconstitution. Levels of immune activation were inversely correlated with the absolute numbers of RTEs in both groups, but more strongly so in individuals with poor immune reconstitution. Conclusion: We show that RTEs are linked to CD4+ T-cell recovery and that the degree of immune reconstitution is not directly linked to persistent immune activation.
Collapse
|
23
|
Dash B, Shapiro MJ, Thapa P, Romero Arocha S, Chung JY, Schwab AD, McCue SA, Rajcula MJ, Shapiro VS. The Interaction between NKAP and HDAC3 Is Critical for T Cell Maturation. Immunohorizons 2019; 3:352-367. [PMID: 31387873 DOI: 10.4049/immunohorizons.1900052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
NKAP and HDAC3 are critical for T cell maturation. NKAP and HDAC3 physically associate, and a point mutation in NKAP, NKAP(Y352A), abrogates this interaction. To evaluate the significance of NKAP and HDAC3 association in T cell maturation, transgenic mice were engineered for cre-mediated endogenous NKAP gene deletion coupled to induction of NKAP(Y352A) or a wild type (WT) control transgene, NKAP(WT), in double positive thymocytes or regulatory T cells (Tregs). T cell maturation was normal in mice with endogenous NKAP deletion coupled to NKAP(WT) induction. However, severe defects occurred in T cell and Treg maturation and in iNKT cell development when NKAP(Y352A) was induced, recapitulating NKAP deficiency. Conventional T cells expressing NKAP(Y352A) failed to enter the long-term T cell pool, did not produce cytokines, and remained complement susceptible, whereas Tregs expressing NKAP(Y352A) were eliminated as recent thymic emigrants leading to lethal autoimmunity. Overall, these results demonstrate the significance of NKAP-HDAC3 association in T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barsha Dash
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905
| | | | - Puspa Thapa
- Columbia Center for Translational Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032; and.,Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032
| | | | - Ji-Young Chung
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Aaron D Schwab
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Pabst R. The thymus is relevant in the migration of mature lymphocytes. Cell Tissue Res 2019; 376:19-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-019-02994-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
25
|
Forsdyke DR. Two signal half-century: From negative selection of self-reactivity to positive selection of near-self-reactivity. Scand J Immunol 2018; 89:e12746. [PMID: 30592317 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
With the emergence of clonal selection ideas in the 1950s, the development of immune cell repertoires was seen to require the negative selection of self-reacting cells, with surviving cells exhibiting a broad range of specificities. Thus, confronting a universe of not-self-antigens, a potential host organism spread its resources widely. In the 1960s, the two signal hypothesis showed how this might work. However, in the 1970s an affinity/avidity model further proposed that anticipating a pathogen strategy of exploiting "holes" in the repertoire created by negative selection, hosts should also positively select near-self-reacting cells. A microbe mutating an antigen from a form foreign to its host to a form resembling that host should prevail over host defences with respect to that antigen. By mutating a step towards host self, along the path from non-self to self, it should come to dominate the microbe population. By progressive stepwise mutations, such microbes would become better adapted, to the detriment of their hosts. But they would lose this advantage if, as they mutated closer to host self, they encountered progressively stiffer host defences. Thus, as described in the affinity/avidity model, positive selection of lymphocytes for specificities that were very close to, but not quite, anti-self (ie, "anti-near-self") should be an important host adaptation. While positive selection affects both B and T cells, mechanisms are uncertain. Converging evidence from studies of lymphocyte activation, either polyclonally (with lectins as "antigen-analogs") or monoclonally (by specific antigen), supports the original generic affinity/avidity model for countering mutations towards host self.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Donald R Forsdyke
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Cunningham CA, Hoppins S, Fink PJ. Cutting Edge: Glycolytic Metabolism and Mitochondrial Metabolism Are Uncoupled in Antigen-Activated CD8 + Recent Thymic Emigrants. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 201:1627-1632. [PMID: 30068595 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Recent thymic emigrants (RTEs) are peripheral T cells that have most recently completed selection and thymic egress and constitute a population that is phenotypically and functionally distinct from its more mature counterpart. Ag-activated RTEs are less potent effectors than are activated mature T cells, due in part to reduced aerobic glycolysis (correctable by exogenous IL-2), which in turn impacts IFN-γ production. Mitochondria serve as nodal regulators of cell function, but their contribution to the unique biology of RTEs is unknown. In this study, we show that activated mouse RTEs have impaired oxidative phosphorylation, even in the presence of exogenous IL-2. This altered respiratory phenotype is the result of decreased CD28 signaling, reduced glutaminase induction, and diminished mitochondrial mass in RTEs relative to mature T cells. These results suggest an uncoupling whereby IL-2 tunes the rate of RTE glycolytic metabolism, whereas the unique profile of RTE mitochondrial metabolism is "hard wired."
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cody A Cunningham
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109; and
| | - Suzanne Hoppins
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
| | - Pamela J Fink
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109; and
| |
Collapse
|