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De Mori A, Heyraud A, Tallia F, Blunn G, Jones JR, Roncada T, Cobb J, Al-Jabri T. Ovine Mesenchymal Stem Cell Chondrogenesis on a Novel 3D-Printed Hybrid Scaffold In Vitro. Bioengineering (Basel) 2024; 11:112. [PMID: 38391598 PMCID: PMC10886199 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering11020112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the use of silica/poly(tetrahydrofuran)/poly(ε-caprolactone) (SiO2/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH) 3D-printed scaffolds, with channel sizes of either 200 (SC-200) or 500 (SC-500) µm, as biomaterials to support the chondrogenesis of sheep bone marrow stem cells (oBMSC), under in vitro conditions. The objective was to validate the potential use of SiO2/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH for prospective in vivo ovine studies. The behaviour of oBMSC, with and without the use of exogenous growth factors, on SiO2/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH scaffolds was investigated by analysing cell attachment, viability, proliferation, morphology, expression of chondrogenic genes (RT-qPCR), deposition of aggrecan, collagen II, and collagen I (immunohistochemistry), and quantification of sulphated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). The results showed that all the scaffolds supported cell attachment and proliferation with upregulation of chondrogenic markers and the deposition of a cartilage extracellular matrix (collagen II and aggrecan). Notably, SC-200 showed superior performance in terms of cartilage gene expression. These findings demonstrated that SiO2/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH with 200 µm pore size are optimal for promoting chondrogenic differentiation of oBMSC, even without the use of growth factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna De Mori
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Portsmouth, St Micheal's Building, White Swan Road, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
| | - Agathe Heyraud
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Francesca Tallia
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Gordon Blunn
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, University of Portsmouth, St Micheal's Building, White Swan Road, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
| | - Julian R Jones
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Tosca Roncada
- Trinity Center for Biomedical Engineering, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, DO2 R590 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Justin Cobb
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Talal Al-Jabri
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Wen G, Xu J, Wu T, Zhang S, Chai Y, Kang Q, Li G. Functionalized Polycaprolactone/Hydroxyapatite Composite Microspheres for Promoting Bone Consolidation in a Rat Distraction Osteogenesis Model. J Orthop Res 2020; 38:961-971. [PMID: 31777101 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Distraction osteogenesis (DO) is an ideal model to study bone regeneration. The major limitation is the relatively long period required for new bone consolidation. Here, we investigated whether the application of polycaprolactone (PCL) and hydroxyapatite (HA) composite microspheres could enhance bone formation in DO. Pure PCL microspheres and composite PCL and 10% HA microspheres were synthesized. Bone mesenchymal stem cells isolated from green fluorescent protein rats (GFP-rBMSCs) were cultured with microspheres in a rotary bioreactor system. Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the microstructures. Osteogenic differentiation of rBMSCs was confirmed. Moreover, PCL/HA (20 mg) and PCL (20 mg) were locally administered into the distraction gap in the rat DO model toward the end of the distraction period. Imaging detection, mechanical and histological examinations were performed to assess the quality of the 4-week regenerates. Results showed that the microspheres were of uniform size and monodisperse. After incubation with rBMSCs in culture, PCL/HA microspheres showed a better ability for cell adhesion and osteogenic differentiation compared with PCL microspheres. In vivo, bone volume/total tissue volume, bone mineral density, and mechanical properties of the new callus were significantly higher in the PCL/HA group compared with the PCL group. Histological analyses confirmed improved bone formation and vascularization in PCL/HA group. We presented an effective protocol for the generation of functionalized microspheres and demonstrated implantation of PCL/HA microspheres into the distraction regenerate could significantly enhance bone consolidation. Thus, the application of PCL/HA composite microspheres may be a novel approach for promoting bone regeneration. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 38:961-971, 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Wen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, PR China
| | - Jia Xu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Tianyi Wu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Shengmin Zhang
- Advanced Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Center, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Yimin Chai
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Qinglin Kang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Orthopaedics & Traumatology, Stem Cells and Regeneration Laboratory, Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
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3
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Effect of interfacial serum proteins on the cell membrane disruption induced by amorphous silica nanoparticles in erythrocytes, lymphocytes, malignant melanocytes, and macrophages. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 181:270-277. [PMID: 31153022 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.05.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is very important to examine carefully the potential adverse effects of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) on human health and environments. In the present study, we have investigated the impact of interfacial serum proteins on the cell membrane disruption induced by silica NPs of primary diameter of 55-68 nm in four types of cells (erythrocytes, Jurkat, B16F10, and J774.1). The silica-induced membranolysis was repressed by addition of 1-2% serum into culture media, where the adhesion amount of the FBS-coated silica NPs onto a cell surface seemed comparable with that of the bare silica NPs. The nonspecific attraction between the bare silica and J774.1 cell membrane surfaces was masked by pretreatment of the silica surface with serum albumin, whereas the serum proteins-coated silica surface exhibited the attractive interactions with the cell membrane due to specific binding between some of adsorbed proteins thereon and the membrane receptors. The difference in silica-cell interaction between the nonspecific and specific attractions would explain the reason why interfacial serum proteins reduced the membranolysis without prevention of silica NPs adhering to cell surfaces.
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Liu JP, Zhang HY, Wang J. Synthesis of PPy/BioHAP/AgHg Microstructures and Their Applications in Non-enzymatic Sensing of Glucose. J Inorg Organomet Polym Mater 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10904-018-1012-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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5
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Zhang X, Song C, Ma G, Wei W. Mechanical determination of particle–cell interactions and the associated biomedical applications. J Mater Chem B 2018; 6:7129-7143. [DOI: 10.1039/c8tb01590b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical determination of particle–cell interactions and the associated biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering
- Institute of Process Engineering
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Cui Song
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering
- Institute of Process Engineering
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Guanghui Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering
- Institute of Process Engineering
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
| | - Wei Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering
- Institute of Process Engineering
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100190
- P. R. China
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Effect of stearic acid modified HAp nanoparticles in different solvents on the properties of Pickering emulsions and HAp/PLLA composites. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.05.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Dror Y, Sorkin R, Brand G, Boubriak O, Urban J, Klein J. The effect of the serum corona on interactions between a single nano-object and a living cell. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45758. [PMID: 28383528 PMCID: PMC5382918 DOI: 10.1038/srep45758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) which enter physiological fluids are rapidly coated by proteins, forming a so-called corona which may strongly modify their interaction with tissues and cells relative to the bare NPs. In this work the interactions between a living cell and a nano-object, and in particular the effect on this of the adsorption of serum proteins, are directly examined by measuring the forces arising as an Atomic Force Microscope tip (diameter 20 nm) - simulating a nano-object - approaches and contacts a cell. We find that the presence of a serum protein corona on the tip strongly modifies the interaction as indicated by pronounced increase in the indentation, hysteresis and work of adhesion compared to a bare tip. Classically one expects an AFM tip interacting with a cell surface to be repelled due to cell elastic distortion, offset by tip-cell adhesion, and indeed such a model fits the bare-tip/cell interaction, in agreement with earlier work. However, the force plots obtained with serum-modified tips are very different, indicating that the cell is much more compliant to the approaching tip. The insights obtained in this work may promote better design of NPs for drug delivery and other nano-medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Dror
- Materials and Interfaces Department, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Raya Sorkin
- Materials and Interfaces Department, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Guy Brand
- Materials and Interfaces Department, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Olga Boubriak
- University Laboratory of Physiology, Oxford University, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Jill Urban
- University Laboratory of Physiology, Oxford University, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Jacob Klein
- Materials and Interfaces Department, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.,Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
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Zhang M, Wang AJ, Li JM, Song N, Song Y, He R. Factors influencing the stability and type of hydroxyapatite stabilized Pickering emulsion. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2017; 70:396-404. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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9
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Raimondi MT, Bertoldi S, Caddeo S, Farè S, Arrigoni C, Moretti M. The effect of polyurethane scaffold surface treatments on the adhesion of chondrocytes subjected to interstitial perfusion culture. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2016; 13:364-374. [PMID: 30603418 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-016-9047-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to measure chondrocytes detachment from cellularized constructs cultured in a perfusion bioreactor, and to evaluate the effect of different scaffold coatings on cell adhesion under a fixed flow rate. The scaffolds were polyurethane foams, treated to promote cell attachment and seeded with human chondrocytes. In a preliminary static culture experiment, the scaffolds were imbibed with fetal bovine serum (FBS) and then cultured for 4 weeks. To quantify cell detachment, the number of detached cells from the scaffold treated with FBS was estimated under different interstitial perfusion flow rates and shear stress levels (0.005 mL/min equivalent to 0.05 mPa, 0.023 mL/min equivalent to 0.23 mPa, and 0.045 mL/min equivalent to 0.45 mPa). Finally, groups of scaffolds differently treated (FBS, plasma plus FBS, plasma plus collagen type I) were cultured under a fixed perfusion rate of 0.009 mL/min, equivalent to a shear stress of 0.09 mPa, and the detached cells were counted. Static cultivation showed that cell proliferation increased with time and matrix biosynthesis decreased after the first week of culture. Perfused culture showed that the number of detached cells increased with the perfusion rate on FBS-treated constructs. The plasma-treated/collagen-coated scaffolds showed the highest resistance to cell detachment. To minimize cell detachment, the perfusion rate must be maintained in the order of 0.02 mL/min, giving a shear stress of 0.2 mPa. Our set-up allowed estimating the resistance to cell detachment under interstitial perfusion in a repeatable manner, to test other scaffold coatings and cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Teresa Raimondi
- 1Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy.,5Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza L. da Vinci 32, Milano, 20133 Italy
| | - Serena Bertoldi
- 1Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy.,2Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Scienza e Tecnologia dei Materiali (INSTM), Local Unit Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Silvia Caddeo
- 3Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Silvia Farè
- 1Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy.,2Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Scienza e Tecnologia dei Materiali (INSTM), Local Unit Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Chiara Arrigoni
- 4Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, I.R.C.C.S. Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milano, Italy
| | - Matteo Moretti
- 4Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, I.R.C.C.S. Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milano, Italy
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Du Y, Liu H, Shuang J, Wang J, Ma J, Zhang S. Microsphere-based selective laser sintering for building macroporous bone scaffolds with controlled microstructure and excellent biocompatibility. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2015; 135:81-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.06.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 06/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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11
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Shinto H, Fukasawa T, Yoshisue K, Tezuka M, Orita M. Cell membrane disruption induced by amorphous silica nanoparticles in erythrocytes, lymphocytes, malignant melanocytes, and macrophages. ADV POWDER TECHNOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apt.2014.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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12
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Hu Y, Zou S, Chen W, Tong Z, Wang C. Mineralization and drug release of hydroxyapatite/poly(l-lactic acid) nanocomposite scaffolds prepared by Pickering emulsion templating. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 122:559-565. [PMID: 25127362 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Biodegradable and bioactive nanocomposite (NC) biomaterials with controlled microstructures and able to deliver special drugs have gained increasing attention in bone tissue engineering. In this study, the hydroxyapatite (HAp)/poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) NC scaffolds were facilely prepared using solvent evaporation from templating Pickering emulsions stabilized with PLLA-modified HAp (g-HAp) nanoparticles. Then, in vitro mineralization experiments were performed in a simulated body fluid (SBF) to evaluate the bioactivity of the NC scaffolds. Moreover, in vitro drug release of the NC scaffolds using anti-inflammatory drug (ibuprofen, IBU) as the model drug was also investigated. The results showed that the NC scaffolds possessed interconnected pore structures, which could be modulated by varying the g-HAp nanoparticle concentration. The NC scaffolds exhibited excellent bioactivity, since they induced the formation of calcium-sufficient, carbonated apatite nanoparticles on the scaffolds after mineralization in SBF for 3 days. The IBU loaded in the NC scaffolds showed a sustained release profile, and the release kinetic followed the Higuchi model with diffusion process. Thus, solvent evaporation based on Pickering emulsion droplets is a simple and effective method to prepare biodegradable and bioactive porous NC scaffolds for bone repair and replacement applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Hu
- Research Institute of Materials Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Shengwen Zou
- Research Institute of Materials Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Weike Chen
- Research Institute of Materials Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Zhen Tong
- Research Institute of Materials Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Chaoyang Wang
- Research Institute of Materials Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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Gopi D, Nithiya S, Shinyjoy E, Rajeswari D, Kavitha L. Carbon Nanotubes/Carboxymethyl Chitosan/Mineralized Hydroxyapatite Composite Coating on Ti-6Al-4V Alloy for Improved Mechanical and Biological Properties. Ind Eng Chem Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1021/ie403903q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - L. Kavitha
- Department
of Physics, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Central University of Tamilnadu, Thiruvarur 610 101, Tamilnadu, India
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14
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Horie M, Nishio K, Kato H, Endoh S, Fujita K, Nakamura A, Hagihara Y, Yoshida Y, Iwahashi H. Evaluation of cellular effects of silicon dioxide nanoparticles. Toxicol Mech Methods 2014; 24:196-203. [PMID: 24392881 DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2013.879505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Silica nanoparticles (nSiO2s) are an important type of manufactured nanoparticles. Although there are some reports about the cytotoxicity of nSiO2, the association between physical and chemical properties of nSiO2s and their cellular effects is still unclear. In this study, we examined the correlation between the physiochemical properties and cellular effects of three kinds of amorphous nSiO2s; sub-micro-scale amorphous SiO2, and micro-scale amorphous and crystalline SiO2 particles. The SiO2 particles were dispersed in culture medium and applied to HaCaT human keratinocytes and A549 human lung carcinoma cells. nSiO2s showed stronger protein adsorption than larger SiO2 particles. Moreover, the cellular effects of SiO2 particles were independent of the particle size and crystalline phase. The extent of cell membrane damage and intracellular ROS levels were different among nSiO2s. Upon exposure to nSiO2s, some cells released lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), whereas another nSiO2 did not induce LDH release. nSiO2s caused a slight increase in intracellular ROS levels. These cellular effects were independent of the specific surface area and primary particle size of the nSiO2s. Additionally, association of solubility and protein adsorption ability of nSiO2 to its cellular effects seemed to be small. Taken together, our data suggest that nSiO2s do not exert potent cytotoxic effects on cells in culture, especially compared to the effects of micro-scale SiO2 particles. Further studies are needed to address the role of surface properties of nSiO2s on cellular processes and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Horie
- Institute of Industrial Ecological Sciences, University of Occupational and Environmental Health , Fukuoka , Japan
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15
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Hu Y, Yang Y, Ning Y, Wang C, Tong Z. Facile preparation of artemisia argyi oil-loaded antibacterial microcapsules by hydroxyapatite-stabilized Pickering emulsion templating. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2013; 112:96-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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16
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Fujii S, Okada M, Furuzono T. Hydroxyapatite‐Biodegradable Polymer Nanocomposite Microspheres toward Injectable Cell Scaffold. Biomimetics (Basel) 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/9781118810408.ch9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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