Regulation of the migration of endothelial cells by a gradient density of vascular endothelial growth factor

Balancing functions of antifouling, nitric oxide release and vascular cell selectivity for enhanced endothelialization of assembled multilayers

Surface endothelialization is a promising way to improve the hemocompatibility of biomaterials. However, current surface endothelialization strategies have limitations. For example, various surface functions are not well balanced, leading to undesirable results, especially when multiple functional components are introduced. In this work, a multifunctional surface was constructed by balancing the functions of antifouling, nitric oxide (NO) release and endothelial cell promotion via layer-by-layer (LBL) self-assembly. Poly(sodium p-styrenesulfonate-co-oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (negatively charged) and polyethyleneimine (positively charged) were deposited on silicon substrates to construct multilayers by LBL self-assembly. Then, organic selenium, which has a NO-releasing function, and the cell-adhesive peptide Gly-Arg-Glu-Asp-Val-Tyr, which selectively promotes endothelial cells, were introduced on the assembled multilayers. Poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) is a hydrophilic component for antifouling properties, and poly(sodium p-styrenesulfonate) is a heparin analog that provides negative charges. By modulating the contents of poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) and poly(sodium p-styrenesulfonate) in the copolymers, the NO release rates catalyzed by the modified surfaces were regulated. Moreover, the behaviors of endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells on modified surfaces were well controlled. The optimized surface strongly promoted endothelial cells and inhibited smooth muscle cells to achieve endothelialization effectively.

Formation of vascular-like structures using a chemotaxis-driven multiphase model

We propose a continuum model for pattern formation, based on the multiphase model framework, to explore in vitro cell patterning within an extracellular matrix (ECM). We demonstrate that, within this framework, chemotaxis-driven cell migration can lead to the formation of cell clusters and vascular-like structures in 1D and 2D respectively. The influence on pattern formation of additional mechanisms commonly included in multiphase tissue models, including cell-matrix traction, contact inhibition, and cell-cell aggregation, are also investigated. Using sensitivity analysis, the relative impact of each model parameter on the simulation outcomes is assessed to identify the key parameters involved. Chemoattractant-matrix binding is further included, motivated by previous experimental studies, and found to reduce the spatial scale of patterning to within a biologically plausible range for capillary structures. Key findings from the in-depth parameter analysis of the 1D models, both with and without chemoattractant-matrix binding, are demonstrated to translate well to the 2D model, obtaining vascular-like cell patterning for multiple parameter regimes. Overall, we demonstrate a biologically-motivated multiphase model capable of generating long-term pattern formation on a biologically plausible spatial scale both in 1D and 2D, with applications for modelling in vitro vascular network formation.

High-Throughput Methods in the Discovery and Study of Biomaterials and Materiobiology

The complex interaction of cells with biomaterials (i.e., materiobiology) plays an increasingly pivotal role in the development of novel implants, biomedical devices, and tissue engineering scaffolds to treat diseases, aid in the restoration of bodily functions, construct healthy tissues, or regenerate diseased ones. However, the conventional approaches are incapable of screening the huge amount of potential material parameter combinations to identify the optimal cell responses and involve a combination of serendipity and many series of trial-and-error experiments. For advanced tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, highly efficient and complex bioanalysis platforms are expected to explore the complex interaction of cells with biomaterials using combinatorial approaches that offer desired complex microenvironments during healing, development, and homeostasis. In this review, we first introduce materiobiology and its high-throughput screening (HTS). Then we present an in-depth of the recent progress of 2D/3D HTS platforms (i.e., gradient and microarray) in the principle, preparation, screening for materiobiology, and combination with other advanced technologies. The Compendium for Biomaterial Transcriptomics and high content imaging, computational simulations, and their translation toward commercial and clinical uses are highlighted. In the final section, current challenges and future perspectives are discussed. High-throughput experimentation within the field of materiobiology enables the elucidation of the relationships between biomaterial properties and biological behavior and thereby serves as a potential tool for accelerating the development of high-performance biomaterials.

Miniaturized Needle Array-Mediated Drug Delivery Accelerates Wound Healing

A major impediment preventing normal wound healing is insufficient vascularization, which causes hypoxia, poor metabolic support, and dysregulated physiological responses to injury. To combat this, the delivery of angiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), has been shown to provide modest improvement in wound healing. Here, the importance of specialty delivery systems is explored in controlling wound bed drug distribution and consequently improving healing rate and quality. Two intradermal drug delivery systems, miniaturized needle arrays (MNAs) and liquid jet injectors (LJIs), are evaluated to compare effective VEGF delivery into the wound bed. The administered drug's penetration depth and distribution in tissue are significantly different between the two technologies. These systems' capability for efficient drug delivery is first confirmed in vitro and then assessed in vivo. While topical administration of VEGF shows limited effectiveness, intradermal delivery of VEGF in a diabetic murine model accelerates wound healing. To evaluate the translational feasibility of the strategy, the benefits of VEGF delivery using MNAs are assessed in a porcine model. The results demonstrate enhanced angiogenesis, reduced wound contraction, and increased regeneration. These findings show the importance of both therapeutics and delivery strategy in wound healing.

Combining in silico and in vitro models to inform cell seeding strategies in tissue engineering

The seeding density of therapeutic cells in engineered tissue impacts both cell survival and vascularization. Excessively high seeded cell densities can result in increased death and thus waste of valuable cells, whereas lower seeded cell densities may not provide sufficient support for the tissue in vivo, reducing efficacy. Additionally, the production of growth factors by therapeutic cells in low oxygen environments offers a way of generating growth factor gradients, which are important for vascularization, but hypoxia can also induce unwanted levels of cell death. This is a complex problem that lends itself to a combination of computational modelling and experimentation. Here, we present a spatio-temporal mathematical model parametrized using in vitro data capable of simulating the interactions between a therapeutic cell population, oxygen concentrations and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) concentrations in engineered tissues. Simulations of collagen nerve repair constructs suggest that specific seeded cell densities and non-uniform spatial distributions of seeded cells could enhance cell survival and the generation of VEGF gradients. These predictions can now be tested using targeted experiments.

A simple layer-stacking technique to generate biomolecular and mechanical gradients in photocrosslinkable hydrogels

Physicochemical and biological gradients are desirable features for hydrogels to enhance their relevance to biological environments for three-dimensional (3D) cell culture. Therefore, simple and efficient techniques to generate chemical, physical and biological gradients within hydrogels are highly desirable. This work demonstrates a technique to generate biomolecular and mechanical gradients in photocrosslinkable hydrogels by stacking and crosslinking prehydrogel solution in a layer by layer manner. Partial crosslinking of the hydrogel allows mixing of prehydrogel solution with the previous hydrogel layer, which makes a smooth gradient profile, rather than discrete layers. This technique enables the generation of concentration gradients of bovine serum albumin in both gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) and poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate hydrogels, as well as mechanical gradients across a hydrogel containing varying gel concentrations. Fluorescence microscopy, mechanical testing, and scanning electron microscopy show that the gradient profiles can be controlled by changing both the volume and concentration of each layer as well as intensity of UV exposure. GelMA hydrogel gradients with different Young's moduli were successfully used to culture human fibroblasts. The fibroblasts migrated along the gradient axis and showed different morphologies. In general, the proposed technique provides a rapid and simple approach to design and fabricate 3D hydrogel gradients for in vitro biological studies and potentially for in vivo tissue engineering applications.

Toward endothelialization via vascular endothelial growth factor immobilization on cell-repelling functional polyurethanes

We screened a family of nonspecific cell-repelling polyurethanes (PUs) whose backbones are attached with epoxy group-terminated polyethylene glycol (PEG) side chains. Water incubation of the PU films (with 9.2-31.1 wt % PEG) caused a surface enrichment of PEG chains where vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was grafted by forming secondary amine linkages between VEGF molecules and the PEG spacer. These linkages are still ionizable similar to original primary amines in VEGF, thereby retaining the original charge distribution on VEGF macromolecules. This charge conservation together with PEG steric repulsion helped to preserve VEGF conformation and bioactivity. The PU substrates with suitable hard segments contents and VEGF surface densities can selectively induce endothelial cells (ECs) adhesion and proliferation toward endothelialization. Moreover, the PU substrates, even grafted with fibrinogen (Fg), cannot trigger platelet adhesion and deformation, suggesting an inactive conformation of the grafted Fg. Thus enough antithrombogenicity of the PU substrates could be expected before full endothelialization. These PU materials might be applied onto the lumens of vascular grafts, potentially stimulating luminal endothelialization in vivo. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 107B: 965-977, 2019.

Strategies for directing cells into building functional hearts and parts

This review presents the current state-of-the-art, emerging directions and future trends to direct cells for building functional heart parts.

Poly(l-lactide) melt spun fiber-aligned scaffolds coated with collagen or chitosan for guiding the directional migration of osteoblasts in vitro

PLLA melt spun fiber-aligned scaffolds coated with collagen or chitosan enhance the viability, spreading, alignment and mobility of osteoblasts.

Preparation of an Arg-Glu-Asp-Val Peptide Density Gradient on Hyaluronic Acid-Coated Poly(ε-caprolactone) Film and Its Influence on the Selective Adhesion and Directional Migration of Endothelial Cells

Selective adhesion and migration of endothelial cells (ECs) over smooth muscle cells (SMCs) is very important in the rapid endothelialization of blood-contacting implants to prevent vascular restenosis. In this study, a uniform cell-resistant layer of methacrylate-functionalized hyaluronic acid (HA) was first immobilized on a poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) film via polydopamine coupling. Then, a density gradient of thiol-functionalized Arg-Glu-Asp-Val (REDV) peptide was prepared on the HA layer via thiol-ene click chemistry and the continuous injection method. The REDV gradient selectively enhanced EC adhesion and preferential directional migration toward the region of higher REDV density, reaching 86% directionality in the middle of the gradient. The migration rate of ECs was also significantly enhanced twofold compared with that on tissue culture polystyrene (TCPS). In contrast, the gradient significantly weakened the adhesion of SMCs to 25% of that on TCPS but had no obvious impact on the migration rate and directionality. Successful modulation of the selective adhesion and directional migration of ECs over SMCs on biodegradable polymers serves as an important step toward practical applications for guided tissue regeneration.