Ketoprofen-loaded pomegranate seed oil nanoemulsion stabilized by pullulan: Selective antiglioma formulation for intravenous administration

Pomegranate seeds: a comprehensive review of traditional uses, chemical composition, and pharmacological properties

Pomegranate seeds (PS) are the dried seeds derived from pomegranate fruit, accounting for approximately 20% of the fruit's total weight, and are a by-product of pomegranate juice extraction. These seeds hold significance in traditional medicine among Uyghurs and Tibetan cultures, featuring diverse clinical applications within traditional Chinese medicine. These applications include management of gastric coldness and acidity, abdominal distension, liver and gallbladder fever, and pediatric enteritis. PS demonstrates properties such as stomach tonicity, qi regulation, analgesia, and anti-inflammatory effects. Extensive research underscores the richness of PS in various phytochemical compounds and metabolites, notably unsaturated fatty acids (particularly linolenic acid and linoleic acid), phenolic compounds tocopherols, proteins, and volatile oils. Notably, among these bioactive compounds, punicic acid (PA), found within PS, demonstrates potential in the prevention and treatment of cancers, diabetes, obesity, and other ailments. Despite extensive literature on pomegranate as a botanical entity, a comprehensive review focusing specifically on the chemical composition and pharmacological effects of PS remains elusive. Therefore, this review aimed to consolidate knowledge regarding the medicinal properties of PS, summarizing its chemical composition, traditional uses, and pharmacological effects in treating various diseases, thereby laying a foundation for the advancement and application of PS in the field of pharmacology.

Modified Release 3D-Printed Capsules Containing a Ketoprofen Self-Nanoemulsifying System for Personalized Medical Application

This study explores the realm of personalized medicine by investigating the utilization of 3D-printed dosage forms, specifically focusing on patient-specific enteric capsules designed for the modified release of ketoprofen, serving as a model drug. The research investigates two distinct scenarios: the modification of drug release from 3D-printed capsules crafted from hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate:polyethylene glycol (HPMCP:PEG) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), tailored for pH sensitivity and delayed release modes, respectively. Additionally, a novel ketoprofen-loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) based on pomegranate seed oil (PSO) was developed, characterized, and employed as a fill material for the capsules. Through the preparation and characterization of the HPMCP:PEG based filament via the hot-melt extrusion method, the study thoroughly investigated its thermal and mechanical properties. Notably, the in vitro drug release analysis unveiled the intricate interplay between ketoprofen release, polymer type, and capsule thickness. Furthermore, the incorporation of ketoprofen into the SNEDDS exhibited an enhancement in its in vitro cylooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitory activity. These findings collectively underscore the potential of 3D printing in shaping tailored drug delivery systems, thereby contributing significantly to the advancement of personalized medicine.

Carrageenan-xanthan nanocomposite film with improved bioadhesion and permeation profile in human skin: A cutaneous-friendly platform for ketoprofen local delivery

Ketoprofen (KET), commonly used for inflammation in clinical settings, leads to systemic adverse effects with prolonged use, mitigated by topical administration. Nanotechnology-based cutaneous forms, like films, may enhance KET efficacy. Therefore, this study aimed to prepare and characterize films containing KET nanoemulsions (F-NK) regarding mechanical properties, chemical composition and interactions, occlusive potential, bioadhesion, drug permeation in human skin, and safety. The films were prepared using a κ-carrageenan and xanthan gum blend (2 % w/w, ratio 3: 1) plasticized with glycerol through the solvent casting method. Non-nanoemulsioned KET films (F-K) were prepared for comparative purposes. F-NK was flexible and hydrophilic, exhibited higher drug content and better uniformity (94.40 ± 3.61 %), maintained the NK droplet size (157 ± 12 nm), and was thinner and lighter than the F-K. This film also showed increased tensile strength and Young's modulus values, enhanced bioadhesion and occlusive potential, and resulted in more of the drug in the human skin layers. Data also suggested that nano-based formulations are homogeneous and more stable than F-KET. Hemolysis and chorioallantoic membrane tests suggested the formulations' safety. Thus, the nano-based film is suitable for cutaneous KET delivery, which may improve the drug's efficacy in managing inflammatory conditions.

Novel pH-responsive alginate-stabilized curcumin-selenium-ZIF-8 nanocomposites for synergistic breast cancer therapy

In this study, a novel selenium@zeolitic imidazolate framework core/shell nanocomposite stabilised with alginate was used to improve the anti-tumour activity of curcumin. The developed alginate-stabilised curcumin-loaded selenium@zeolitic imidazolate framework (Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8) had a mean diameter of 159.6 nm and polydispersity index < 0.25. The release of curcumin from the nanocarrier at pH 5.4 was 2.69 folds as high as at pH 7.4. The bare nanoparticles showed haemolytic activity of about 12.16% at a concentration of 500 µg/mL while covering their surface with alginate reduced this value to 5.2%. By investigating cell viability, it was found that Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8 caused more cell death than pure curcumin. Additionally, in vivo studies showed that Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8 dramatically reduced tumour growth compared to free curcumin in 4T1 tumour-bearing mice. More importantly, the histological study confirmed that the developed drug delivery system successfully inhibited lung and liver metastasis while causing negligible toxicity in vital organs. Overall, due to the excellent inhibitory activity on cancerous cell lines and tumour-bearing animals, Alg@Cur@Se@ZIF-8 can be considered promising for breast cancer therapy.

Xanthan-carrageenan film containing sesame seed oil: A nanocomposite pharmaceutical platform for trichomoniasis treatment

Trichomoniasis is a common sexually transmitted infection that poses significant complications for women. Challenges in treatment include adverse effects and resistance to standard antimicrobial agents. Given this context, a sesame seed oil nanoemulsion (SONE) was developed and showed anti-Trichomonas vaginalis activity. To facilitate the local application of SONE, a polysaccharide film was developed using xanthan gum (XG) and κ-carrageenan gum (CG). A blend of XG and CG (at 2 %, ratio 1:3) plasticized with glycerol produced a more promising film (XCF) than using the gums individually. The film containing SONE (SONE-XCF) was successfully obtained by replacing the aqueous solvent with SONE via solvent evaporation technique. The hydrophilic SONE-XCF exhibited homogeneity and suitable mechanical properties for vaginal application. Furthermore, SONE-XCF demonstrated mucoadhesive properties and high absorption capacity for excessive vaginal fluids produced in vaginitis. It also had a disintegration time of over 8 h, indicating long retention at the intended site of action. Hemolysis and chorioallantoic membrane tests confirmed the safety of the film. Therefore, SONE-XCF is a biocompatible film with a natural composition and inherent activity against T. vaginalis, possessing exceptional characteristics that make it appropriate for vaginal application, offering an interesting alternative for trichomoniasis treatment.

Karaya/Gellan-Gum-Based Bilayer Films Containing 3,3'-Diindolylmethane-Loaded Nanocapsules: A Promising Alternative to Melanoma Topical Treatment

This study aimed to incorporate nanocapsules containing 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) with antitumor activity into a bilayer film of karaya and gellan gums for use in topical melanoma therapy. Nanocarriers and films were prepared by interfacial deposition of the preformed polymer and solvent casting methods, respectively. Incorporating DIM into nanocapsules increased its antitumor potential against human melanoma cells (A-375) (IC50 > 24.00 µg/mL free DIM × 2.89 µg/mL nanocapsules). The films were transparent, hydrophilic (θ < 90°), had homogeneous thickness and weight, and had a DIM content of 106 µg/cm2. Radical ABTS+ scavenger assay showed that the DIM films presented promising antioxidant action. Remarkably, the films showed selective bioadhesive potential on the karaya gum side. Considering the mechanical analyses, the nanotechnology-based films presented appropriate behavior for cutaneous application and controlled DIM release profile, which could increase the residence time on the application site. Furthermore, the nanofilms were found to increase the permeation of DIM into the epidermis, where melanoma develops. Lastly, the films were non-hemolytic (hemolysis test) and non-irritant (HET-CAM assay). In summary, the combination of karaya and gellan gum in bilayer films that contain nanoencapsulated DIM has demonstrated potential in the topical treatment of melanoma and could serve as a viable option for administering DIM for cutaneous melanoma therapy.

Pullulan-stabilized Soybean Phospholipids/Cinnamaldehyde emulsion for Flammulina velutipes preservation

Fresh mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes) are very perishable and easily brown; also they undergo postharvest loss of nutritive constituents. In this study, cinnamaldehyde (CA) emulsion was prepared by using soybean phospholipids (SP) as emulsifier and pullulan (Pul) as stabilizer. The effect of emulsion on the quality of mushroom during storage was also studied. The experimental results indicated that the emulsion obtained by adding 6 % pullulan was found to the most uniform and stable, which is beneficial to its application. Emulsion coating maintained the storage quality of Flammulina velutipes. The incorporation of CA emulsion into the coating system showed a positive effect on inhibiting the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, resulting from improving the effectiveness of delaying active free radical scavenging enzymes. The shelf life of mushrooms coated with emulsion was significantly prolonged, which indicates its potential application in food preservation.

Current and Future Nano-Carrier-Based Approaches in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

It is a very alarming situation for the globe because 55 million humans are estimated to be affected by Alzheimer's disease (AD) worldwide, and still it is increasing at the rapid speed of 10 million cases per year worldwide. This is an urgent reminder for better research and treatment due to the unavailability of a permanent medication for neurodegenerative disorders like AD. The lack of drugs for neurodegenerative disorder treatment is due to the complexity of the structure of the brain, mainly due to blood-brain barrier, because blood-brain drug molecules must enter the brain compartment. There are several novel and conventional formulation approaches that can be employed for the transportation of drug molecules to the target site in the brain, such as oral, intravenous, gene delivery, surgically implanted intraventricular catheter, nasal and liposomal hydrogels, and repurposing old drugs. A drug's lipophilicity influences metabolic activity in addition to membrane permeability because lipophilic substances have a higher affinity for metabolic enzymes. As a result, the higher a drug's lipophilicity is, the higher its permeability and metabolic clearance. AD is currently incurable, and the medicines available merely cure the symptoms or slow the illness's progression. In the next 20 years, the World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that neurodegenerative illnesses affecting motor function will become the second-leading cause of mortality. The current article provides a brief overview of recent advances in brain drug delivery for AD therapy.

A Recent Update on Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Interventions of Alzheimer's Disease

AIM

Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been identified as a progressive brain disorder associated with memory dysfunction and the accumulation of β-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles of τ protein. Mitochondria is crucial in maintaining cell survival, cell death, calcium regulation, and ATP synthesis. Mitochondrial dysfunction and linked calcium overload have been involved in the pathogenesis of AD. CRM2 (Collapsin response mediator protein-2) is involved in endosomal lysosomal trafficking as well as autophagy, and their reduced level is also a primary culprit in the progression of AD. In addition, Cholinergic neurotransmission and neuroinflammation are two other mechanisms implicated in AD onset and might be protective targets to attenuate disease progression. The microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA) is another crucial target for AD treatment. Crosstalk between gut microbiota and brain mutually benefitted each other, dysbiosis in gut microbiota affects the brain functions and leads to AD progression with increased AD-causing biomarkers. Despite the complexity of AD, treatment is only limited to symptomatic management. Therefore, there is an urgent demand for novel therapeutics that target associated pathways responsible for AD pathology. This review explores the role of different mechanisms involved in AD and possible therapeutic targets to protect against disease progression.

BACKGROUND

Amidst various age-related diseases, AD is the most deleterious neurodegenerative disorder that affects more than 24 million people globally. Every year, approximately 7.7 million new cases of dementia have been reported. However, to date, no novel disease-modifying therapies are available to treat AD.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of writing this review is to highlight the role of key biomarker proteins and possible therapeutic interventions that could play a crucial role in mitigating the ongoing prognosis of Alzheimer's disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information about the disease was collected through multiple search engines, including PubMed, Science Direct, Clinical Trials, and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

Accumulated pieces of evidence reveal that extracellular aggregation of β-amyloid plaques and intracellular tangles of τ protein are peculiar features of perpetuated Alzheimer's disease (AD). Further, the significant role of mitochondria, calcium, and cholinergic pathways in the pathogenesis of AD makes the respiratory cell organelle a crucial therapeutic target in this neurodegenerative disease. All currently available drugs either delay the clinical damage to cells or temporarily attenuate some symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.

CONCLUSION

The pathological features of AD are extracellular deposition of β-amyloid, acetylcholinesterase deregulation, and intracellular tangles of τ protein. The multifactorial heterogeneity of disease demands more research work in this field to find new therapeutic biological targets.

A novel nanotechnological mucoadhesive and fast-dissolving film for vaginal delivery of clotrimazole: design, characterization, and in vitro antifungal action

Pullulan (PUL) films containing pomegranate seed oil and Eudragit^® RS100 nanocapsules loaded with clotrimazole (CTZ-NC-PUL) were developed to treat vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). Our findings showed that the nanocapsule average diameter was around 163 ± 4 nm, with polydispersity index values of up to 0.1 ± 0.01 and positively charged zeta potential (+ 43.5 ± 0.7 mV). The pH was in the acid range (5.14 ± 0.12) and encapsulation efficiency was around 99.6%; CTZ nanoencapsulation promoted higher homogeneity values for the film (91%), and the stability studies displayed no changes in the drug content after 120 days for the CTZ-NC-PUL under refrigerated conditions. All formulations were considered non-irritant, and CTZ-NC-PUL promoted a controlled release of the drug (60% in 24 h) compared to CTZ-PUL (100% in 8 h). The permeation results corroborate the drug release, where higher CTZ amounts were found in the mucosa and receptor medium for CTZ-PUL (21.02 and 4.46 μg/cm²). The films were fast dissolving (10 min), and CTZ-NC-PUL presented higher mucoadhesive properties; the antifungal activity against Candida albicans was maintained, and the in vitro efficacy of the film was proved. In conclusion, CTZ-NC-PUL formulation was considered promising and suitable for vaginal application against candida-related infections.

New uses of ketoprofen – a review of studies from 2015 to 2021

Ketoprofen (K) belongs to the family of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and demonstrates analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties. K is one of the most commonly used NSAIDs because of the speed and effectiveness of its activity. K is currently used for the treatment of pain and treatment of symptoms in rheumatic diseases, however, many researchers are looking for new uses of K. The aim of the review was to present the possible applications of K as indicated in current literature. We searched research literature and compiled all the reports (2015 onwards) we could find about new possible employments of K in health practices. Many studies have been aimed at obtaining new uses of K. This article describes the use of ketoprofen lysine salt for treating injured gastric mucosa, the anti-allergic potential of K, the employment of K in treating nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, human lymphedema and seizures, as well as the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of K, prospects for the use of K in oncology and transplantology. The findings of the review confirm that K, its derivatives and complexes have many newly discovered effects. It is likely that in the future, K will have more indications than it has today.

Pullulan film incorporated with nanocapsules improves pomegranate seed oil anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in the treatment of atopic dermatitis in mice

This study aimed to prepare pullulan films containing pomegranate seeds oil (PSO) based nanocapsules, and evaluate the formulation efficacy in the treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD)-like lesions induced by 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB). The Eudragit RS 100® nanocapsules (PSONC) were prepared by the interfacial precipitation of preformed polymer, whereas the films were produced by the solvent casting method. Pomegranate seed oil nanoemulsions (PSONE) were prepared by the spontaneous emulsification method for comparative reasons. Both nanosystems presented adequate mean diameter (248 ± 16 nm for PSONE and 181 ± 6 nm for PSONC), polydispersity index (below 0.2), zeta potential (-25.63 ± 1.1 mV for PSONE and + 43.13 ± 0.7 mV for PSONC) and pH in the acid range (6.77 ± 0.27 and 5.31 ± 0.17, PSONE and PSONC). By a pre-formulation study, sorbitol (6.5%) and PEG 400 (1.5%) were considered the most suitable plasticizers for developing pullulan films (6%) intending topical application. In general, pullulan films were classified as flexible and hydrophilic, with high occlusive properties, 57.6 ± 0.8%, 64.6 ± 0.8% for vehicle, PSONCF (pullulan film containing PSONC), respectively. All formulations (films and nanocarriers) presented no irritant potential in the chorioallantoic membrane test. In the in vivo model, the treatments with free PSO and PSONCF attenuated the skin injury as well as the mechanical hypernociceptive behavioral induced by DNCB exposure to mice. Importantly, the biochemical analyses provided evidence that only the treatment with PSONCF modulated the inflammatory and the oxidative stress parameters evaluated in this study. In conclusion, these data lead us to believe that PSONC incorporation into a pullulan film matrix improved the biological properties of the PSO in this AD-model.

Relationship and improvement strategies between drug nanocarrier characteristics and hemocompatibility: What can we learn from the literature

This article discusses the various blood interactions that may occur with various types of nano drug-loading systems. Nanoparticles enter the blood circulation as foreign objects. On the one hand, they may cause a series of inflammatory reactions and immune reactions, resulting in the rapid elimination of immune cells and the reticuloendothelial system, affecting their durability in the blood circulation. On the other hand, the premise of the drug-carrying system to play a therapeutic role depends on whether they cause coagulation and platelet activation, the absence of hemolysis and the elimination of immune cells. For different forms of nano drug-carrying systems, we can find the characteristics, elements and coping strategies of adverse blood reactions that we can find in previous researches. These adverse reactions may include destruction of blood cells, abnormal coagulation system, abnormal effects of plasma proteins, abnormal blood cell behavior, adverse immune and inflammatory reactions, and excessive vascular stimulation. In order to provide help for future research and formulation work on the blood compatibility of nano drug carriers.

Natural polymeric nanocarriers in malignant glioma drug delivery and targeting

Among all central nervous diseases, malignant glioma is a crucial part that deserves more attention since high fatality and disability rate. There are several therapeutic strategies applied to the treatment of malignant glioma, especially certain chemotherapy-related treatments. However, the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) seriously hinders the strategy's progress, so how to escape from the barriers is a fascinating question. Herein, we comprehensively discussed the details of malignant glioma and the BBB's functional morphology and summarized several routes bypassing the BBB. Additionally, since possessing excellent properties for drug delivery, we provided an insight into various promising natural polymeric materials and highlighted their applications in the treatment of malignant glioma.

Bioactive Compounds and Pharmacological Potential of Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Seeds - A Review

The use of complementary medicine has recently increased in an attempt to find effective alternative therapies that reduce the adverse effects of drugs. Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) by-products, such as seeds, is a rich source of phytochemicals with a high antioxidant activity, thus possessing health benefits. For the identification and quantification of the pomegranate seeds chemical compounds, particular attention has been drawn to the latest developments in the HPLC coupling with electrospray ionization (ESI) MS/MS detection. In fact, a wide range of phytochemicals including phenolic acid, anthocyanins, flavonoids, hydrolysable tannins and other polyphenols were characterized. Furthermore, an exhaustive review of the scientific literature on pomegranate seeds on biomedicine and pharmacotherapy was carried out. Indeed, both in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated how pomegranate seeds possess antioxidant, anti- cardiovascular diseases, anti-osteoporosis, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. The present review describes a recent tendency in research focusing on the chemical and biomedical features of the pomegranate seeds to value them as natural additives or active compounds for first-order diseases.

Design of Pegylated-Nanocapsules to Diphenyl Diselenide Administration: In Vitro Evidence of Hemocompatible and Selective Antiglioma Formulation

Diphenyl diselenide [(PhSe)₂] is a pleiotropic pharmacological agent, but it has low aqueous solubility. The nanoencapsulation of (PhSe)₂ allowed the preparation of an aqueous formulation as well as potentiated its in vitro antitumor effect and the effectiveness in a preclinical model of glioblastoma when administered by the intragastric route. Thus, aiming at maximizing the therapeutic potential of (PhSe)₂, the present study designed a pegylated-formulation intending to intravenous administration of the (PhSe)₂ as a new approach for glioma therapy. The poly(Ɛ-caprolactone) nanocapsules containing (PhSe)₂ were physically coated with polyethyleneglycol (PEG) using the preformed polymer interfacial deposition technique and evaluated through physicochemical, morphological, spectroscopic, and thermal characteristics. Hemocompatibility was determined by the in vitro hemolysis test and cytotoxicity assays were performed in astrocytes and glioma C6 cells (10-100 μM). The pegylated-nanocapsules had an average diameter of 218 ± 25 nm, polydispersity index of 0.164 ± 0.046, zeta potential of - 8.1 ± 1.6 mV, pH 6.0 ± 0.09, (PhSe)₂ content of 102.00 ± 3.57%, and encapsulation efficiency around 98%. Besides, the (PhSe)₂ pegylated-nanocapsules were spherical, presented absence of chemical interaction among the constituents, and showed higher thermal stability than the non-encapsulated materials. PEG-coated nanocapsules did not cause hemolytic effect while formulations without PEG induced a hemolysis rate above 10%. Moreover, pegylated-nanocapsules had superior in vitro antiglioma effect in comparison to free compound (IC₅₀: 24.10 μM and 74.83 μM, respectively). Therefore, the (PhSe)₂-loaded pegylated-nanocapsule suspensions can be considered a hemocompatible formulation for the glioma treatment by the intravenous route.

Antitumor action of diphenyl diselenide nanocapsules: In vitro assessments and preclinical evidence in an animal model of glioblastoma multiforme

BACKGROUND

Gliomas are the most aggressive malignant tumors of the central nervous system. The diphenyl diselenide [(PhSe)₂] is an organoselenium compound that has multiple pharmacological properties. Previous reports showed that (PhSe)₂ nanoencapsulation potentiates its in vitro antitumoral action and reduces its toxicity.

OBJECTIVE

In this sense, the current study was designed to further evaluate the (PhSe)₂ antitumoral effect by a set of in vitro techniques using a glioma cell line as well as by an animal model of gliobastoma.

METHODS

For the in vitro tests, the cell viability, propidium iodide uptake and nitrite levels of rat glioma C6 cells were determined after incubation with free (PhSe)₂ or (PhSe)₂-loaded nanocapsules (NC). The glioblastoma model was induced by implantation of C6 glioma cells in the right striatum of rats. Following, animals were submitted to a repeated intragastric administration treatment with (PhSe)₂ or NC (PhSe)₂ (1 mg/kg/day for 15 days) to assess the possible antitumor effect.

MAIN FINDINGS

Both compound forms decreased the C6 glioma cells viability without causing any effect in astrocytes cells (healthy control). Importantly, the NC (PhSe)₂ had superior cytotoxic effect than its free form and increased the nitrite content. Independent of the (PhSe)₂ forms, the intragastric treatment reduced brain tumor size and caused neither alteration in the plasma renal and hepatic markers of function nor in the parameters of oxidative balance in brain, liver and kidneys.

PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS

The (PhSe)₂ nanoencapsulation improved its cytotoxic effect against C6 glioma cells and both compound forms attenuated the tumor development.

Desonide nanoencapsulation with açai oil as oil core: Physicochemical characterization, photostability study and in vitro phototoxicity evaluation

This study aimed to develop Eudragit® RL 100 nanocapsules loaded with desonide (DES) using açai oil (AO) or medium chain triglycerides (MCT) as oil core. Pre-formulation study showed that AO and MCT are suitable for nanocapsules preparation. The nanocapsules prepared with AO and MCT presented mean particle size around 165 and 131 nm, respectively; polydispersity index values <0.20, positive zeta potential values, drug content close to the theoretical value (0.25 mg mL^-1), and DES encapsulation efficiency around 81%, regardless of the oil core (AO or MCT). Considering the photoinstability reported to DES, photodegradation studies were performed. The UV-A (365 nm) and UV-C (254 nm) photodegradation studies revealed less DES degradation when associated to the nanocapsules containing AO in comparison to those with MCT. The in vitro release study showed a biphasic release profile for both nanocapsule suspensions: an initial burst effect followed by a prolonged DES release. In addition, the formulations were considered non-phototoxic at 0.5 mg mL^-1 when tested on 3 T3 murine fibroblasts and HaCaT human keratinocytes using the MTT and NRU viability assays. The irritant potential of the prepared nanocapsules and DES in free form were evaluated by HET-CAM method. All formulations were classified as slightly irritant, including the non-associate DES. In conclusion, the nanocapsule formulations developed in this study may be promising for therapeutic applications.

Advancements in nanotherapeutics for Alzheimer’s disease: current perspectives

Objectives

Considerable progress has been made in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), but all available strategies focus on alleviating symptoms rather than curing, which means that AD is viewed as an unresolvable neurodegenerative disease. Nanotechnological applications offer an alternative platform for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This review aims to summarize the recent nanomedicine and nanotechnology developments for the treatment of AD.

Key findings

A plethora of nanocarriers and nanoparticle prodrugs have been reported to have negligible cytotoxicity in animal models, and these developments have revealed new opportunities for development of new classes of potent drug formulations for AD. Different nanotechnology-based approaches such as polymers, emulsions, lipo-carriers, solid lipid carriers, carbon nanotubes and metal-based carriers have been developed over the past decade, and they have been focusing on both neuroprotective and neurogenerative techniques to treat AD. Studies also reveal that nanotechnological approaches can aid in early diagnosis of AD and enhance therapeutic efficacy and bioavailability.

Summary

Notably, the drugs used conventionally to target the central nervous system have limitations that include an inability to cross the ‘blood–brain barrier’ or the ‘blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier’ effectively and high drug efflux due to the activity of P-glycoprotein, but these limitations can be successfully overcome when nanocarriers are used for targeted drug delivery in AD.

Ketoprofen-loaded rose hip oil nanocapsules attenuate chronic inflammatory response in a pre-clinical trial in mice

This study aimed to develop nanocapsules containing ketoprofen using rose hip oil (Keto-NC) as oil core, and to evaluate their anti-inflammatory activity in acute and chronic ear edema models in mice. Physicochemical characterization, drug release, photostability and cytotoxicity assays were performed for the developed Keto-NC formulations and compared to ketoprofen-loaded nanocapsules using medium chain triglycerides as oil core (Keto-MCT-NC). Anti-inflammatory activity of orally delivered KP (Ketoprofen-free; 10 mg.kg^-1) or Keto-NC (2.5; 5; 10 mg.kg^-1) was assessed in mouse acute and chronic ear edema induced by croton oil (CO). Edema histological characteristics were determined by H&E stain, and redox parameters were analyzed in blood plasma and erythrocytes. Keto-MCT-NC and Keto-NC did not exhibit differences regarding physicochemical parameters, including size diameters, polydispersity index, pH, Ketoprofen content, and encapsulation efficiency. However, Keto-NC, which contains rose hip oil as lipid core, decreased drug photodegradation under UVC radiation when compared to Keto-MCT-NC. KP or Keto-NC were not cytotoxic to keratinocyte cultures and produced equal edema inhibition in the acute protocol. Conversely, in the chronic protocol, Keto-NC was more effective in reducing edema (~60-70% on 7-9th days of treatment) when compared to KP (~40% on 8-9th days of treatment). This result was confirmed by histological analysis, which indicated reduction of edema and inflammatory infiltrate. A sub-therapeutic dose of Keto-NC (5 mg.kg^-1) significantly reduced edema when compared to control. Finally, KP and Keto-NC exhibited similar effects on redox parameters, suggesting that the advantages associated with Ketoprofen nanoencapsulation did not involve oxidative stress pathways. The results showed that Keto-NC was more efficient than KP in reducing chronic inflammation. These data may be important for the development of strategies aiming treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases with fewer adverse effects.

Nanoemulsions in CNS drug delivery: recent developments, impacts and challenges

Despite enormous efforts, treatment of CNS diseases remains challenging. One of the main issues causing this situation is limited CNS access for the majority of drugs used as part of the therapeutic regimens against life-threatening CNS diseases. Regarding the inarguable position of the nanocarrier systems in neuropharmacokinetic enhancement of the CNS drugs, this review discusses the latest findings on nanoemulsions (NEs) as one of the most promising candidates of this type, to overcome the challenges of CNS drug delivery. Future development of NE-based CNS drug delivery needs to consider so many aspects not only from a physicochemical point of view but also related to the biointerface of these very small droplets before achieving clinical value.

Neuropharmacokinetic evaluation of lactoferrin-treated indinavir-loaded nanoemulsions: remarkable brain delivery enhancement

OBJECTIVE

Indinavir (IDV), an antiretroviral protease inhibitor used in treatment of HIV infection, has limited entry into brain due to efflux by the P-glycoprotein presented in blood-brain barrier. The aim of present study was to develop lactoferrin-treated nanoemulsion containing indinavir (Lf-IDV-NEs) for delivery to brain.

METHODS

Indinavir-loaded nanoemulsions (IDV-NEs) were prepared by high-speed homogenization method, and then lactoferrin was coupled to IDV-NEs by water soluble EDC method.

RESULTS

The hydrodynamic diameters, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of IDV-NEs were 112 ± 3.5 nm, 0.20 ± 0.02, and -33.2 ± 2.6 mV, respectively. From in vivo studies in animal model of rats, the AUC_0-4 h of brain concentration-time profile of IDV-NEs and Lf-IDV-NEs were 1.6 and 4.1 times higher than free drug, respectively. The brain uptake clearance of IDV-NEs and Lf-IDV-NEs were, interestingly, 393- and 420-times higher than the free drug.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that applying both lactoferrin-treated and non-treated nanoemulsions clearly leads to significant brain penetration enhancement of indinavir, an effect which is more pronounced in the case of Lf-IDV-NEs with the higher drug residence time in brain.

Nanoencapsulation Improves Scavenging Capacity and Decreases Cytotoxicity of Silibinin and Pomegranate Oil Association

Silibinin (SB) and pomegranate oil (PO) present therapeutic potential due to antioxidant activity, but the biological performance of both bioactives is limited by their low aqueous solubility. To overcome this issue, the aim of the present investigation was to develop nanocapsule suspensions with PO as oil core for SB encapsulation, as well as assess their toxicity in vitro and radical scavenging activity. The nanocapsule suspensions were prepared by interfacial deposition of preformed polymer method. SB-loaded PO-based nanocapsules (SBNC) showed an average diameter of 157 ± 3 nm, homogenous size distribution, zeta potential of -14.1 ± 1.7 mV, pH of 5.6 ± 0.4 and SB content close to 100%. Similar results were obtained for the unloaded formulation (PONC). The nanocapsules controlled SB release at least 10 times as compared with free SB in methanolic solution. The SBNC scavenging capacity in vitro was statistically higher than free SB (p < 0.05). Cell viability in monocytes and lymphocytes was kept around 100% in the treatments with SBNC and PONC, while the SB and the PO caused a decrease around 30% at 50 μM (SB) and 724 μg/mL (PO). Protein carbonyls and DNA damage were minimized by SB and PO nanoencapsulation. Lipid peroxidation occurred in nanocapsule treatments regardless of the SB presence, which may be attributed to PO acting as substrate in reaction. The free compounds also caused lipid peroxidation. The results show that SBNC and PONC presented adequate physicochemical characteristics and low toxicity against human blood cells. Thereby, this novel nanocarrier may be a promising formulation for therapeutic applications.

Ketoprofen-loaded polymer carriers in bigel formulation: an approach to enhancing drug photostability in topical application forms

The purpose of the study was to investigate the stability and biopharmaceutical characteristics of ketoprofen, loaded in polymeric carriers, which were included into a bigel in a semisolid dosage form. The polymer carriers with in situ-included ketoprofen were obtained by emulsifier-free emulsion polymerization of the monomers in aqueous medium or a solution of the polymers used. The morphological characteristics of the carriers, the in vitro release and the photochemical stability of ketoprofen were evaluated. The model with optimal characteristics was included in a bigel formulation. The bigel was characterized in terms of pH, rheological behavior, spreadability, and in vitro drug release. Acute skin toxicity, antinociceptive activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and antihyperalgesic effects of the prepared bigel with ketoprofen-loaded polymer carrier were evaluated. The carriers of ketoprofen were characterized by a high yield and drug loading. The particle size distribution varied widely according to the polymer used, and a sustained release was provided for up to 6 hours. The polymer mixture poly(vinyl acetate) and hydroxypropyl cellulose as a drug carrier, alone or included in the bigel composition, improved the photostability of the drug compared with unprotected ketoprofen. The bigel with ketoprofen-loaded particles provided sustained release of the drug and had optimal rheological parameters. In vivo experiments on the bigel showed no skin inflammation or irritation. Four hours after its application, a well-defined analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antihyperalgesic effect was registered. The polymer mixture of poly(vinyl acetate) and hydroxypropyl cellulose as a carrier of ketoprofen and the bigel in which it was included provided an enhanced photostability and sustained drug release.

p,p'-Methoxyl-diphenyl diselenide-loaded polymeric nanocapsules are chemically stable and do not induce toxicity in mice

Organoselenium compounds have been targeted to new therapeutic tools development due to their pharmacological actions. However, some toxicity issues and physicochemical limitations delay the clinical application of these compounds. The incorporation of organoselenium molecules into nanostructured systems arises as a promising alternative to overcome such restrictions. The current study proposed the characterization of the polymeric nanocapsules of p,p'-methoxyl-diphenyl diselenide [(OMePhSe)₂] as well as the evaluation of the in vivo toxicity and biodistribution profile. The nanocapsules, which were composed by medium-chain triglycerides as the oil core and poly(ε-caprolactone) as the polymeric wall, showed nanometric size (236±4), low polydispersity (<0.2), negative zeta potential (-5.4±0.06), neutral pH values (7.2±0.08) and a high encapsulation efficiency (98%). Besides, the nanoencapsulation process increased the (OMePhSe)₂ stability. The repeated intragastric administration of (OMePhSe)₂ nanoencapsulated (25mg/kg/day during 7days) did not cause any alteration in the oxidative status, hematological parameters, and plasma biochemical markers of cellular damage. Moreover, the (OMePhSe)₂ incorporation into nanocapsules increased the selenium concentrations in the tissues (kidneys, liver and plasma) suggesting an improvement in its oral bioavailability.

Enhanced photostability, radical scavenging and antitumor activity of indole-3-carbinol-loaded rose hip oil nanocapsules

This study aimed to develop poly(ε-caprolactone) nanocapsules loaded with indole-3-cabinol (I3C) using rose hip oil (RHO) or medium chain triglycerides (MCT) as oil core. In vitro radical scavenging activity (DPPH method), hemolysis, and antitumor effects on breast (MCF-7) and glioma (C6) cells were conducted. Preformulation evaluations revealed that RHO is suitable to prepare the nanocapsules considering the log P determination and dissolution/swelling experiments of polymer films. The nanocapsules were prepared and presented adequate physicochemical characteristics as mean size around 250nm, polydispersity index values <0.2, zeta potential negative values and I3C encapsulation efficiency around 42%, without any influence of the oil core (RHO or MCT) on these parameters. However, the photodegradation study demonstrated that RHO nanocapsules showed less degree of I3C degradation in comparison to MCT nanocapsules. The in vitro release profile showed that both nanocapsule suspensions demonstrated an initial burst effect followed by a prolonged I3C release. In addition, the formulations were considered hemocompatibles at 10μg/mL and showed an enhanced radical scavenging activity in comparison to free I3C. Moreover, nanocapsules prepared with RHO increased about two times the antitumor effect of I3C on MCF-7 and C6 cells without significant reduction of astrocyte cell viability. In conclusion, nanocapsule formulations developed in this study might be considered promising for cancer treatment.

Pomegranate seed oil nanoemulsions with selective antiglioma activity: optimization and evaluation of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and oxidative effects on mononuclear cells

CONTEXT

Glioma is a malignant brain tumor with rapid proliferation, infiltrative growth, poor prognosis and it is chemoresistent. Pomegranate seed oil (PSO) has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antitumor properties. This study showed the optimization of PSO nanoemulsions (NEs) as an alternative for glioma treatment.

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to evaluate PSO NEs cytotoxicity on human blood cells and antiglioma effects against C6 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

NEs were prepared by the spontaneous emulsification method, using PSO at 1.5 and 3.0%, and were evaluated regarding their physical stability and antioxidant activity. Toxicity evaluations in human blood cells were performed in terms of cell viability, genotoxicity, lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation, catalase activity and hemolysis at 0.1, 0.25 and 0.5 mg/mL PSO, after a 72-h incubation period. In vitro antitumor effect was determined against glioma cells after 24 and 48 h, and astrocytes were used as a non-transformed cell model.

RESULTS

Formulations presented droplet size below 250 nm, low polydispersity index, negative zeta potential and pH in the acid range. NEs and PSO had scavenging capacity around 30% and promoted a proliferative effect in mononuclear cells, increasing about 50% cell viability. No genotoxic and oxidative damage was observed in lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation and catalase activity evaluations for NEs. Hemolysis study showed a hemolytic effect at high concentrations. Moreover, formulations reduced only tumor cell viability to 47%, approximately.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Formulations are adequate and safe for intravenous administration. Besides, in vitro antitumor activity indicates that NEs are promising for glioma treatment.

Thiazolidin-4-ones from 4-(methylthio)benzaldehyde and 4-(methylsulfonyl)benzaldehyde: Synthesis, antiglioma activity and cytotoxicity

The present study assessed the biological potential of fourteen 1,3-thiazolidin-4-ones evaluating the antiglioma effect through decreasing of cell viability of glioblastoma multiform cells. The new compounds were efficient synthesized through multicomponent or multicomponent one-pot procedures in moderate to good yields (22-86%) from two arenealdehydes (4-(methylthio)benzaldehyde and 4-(methylsulfonyl)benzaldehyde), seven amines (aromatic and aliphatic) and mercaptoacetic acid. The compounds were identified and characterized by GC/MS and NMR, five of them by HRMS. Six thiazolidinones showed significant effect of decreasing cell viability compared to standard drug TMZ at 100 μM in 72 h in C6 cell line by MTT assay. The compounds 5b, 5e, 5g and 6e showed the best results in the screening at 100 μM and were analyzed at different concentrations (5, 25, 50, 100 and 250 μM). Compounds 5b and 5e showed statistical difference at 5 μM, 6e at 25 μM and 5g at 50 μM in 72 h of treatment. The cytotoxicity study in primary astrocytes cells was evaluated and none of fourteen compounds showed toxicity at 100 μM, eight of them were not cytotoxic at 250 μM, both in 72 h. In addition, the propidium iodide assay demonstrated that the compounds might induce cell death by necrosis. In conclusion, this work reports at least four compounds (5b, 5e, 5g and 6e) with potential anti-tumor effect against glioblastoma multiform cell presenting activity at low concentrations and safe profile of cytotoxicity.