Dual tumor-targeted multifunctional magnetic hyaluronic acid micelles for enhanced MR imaging and combined photothermal-chemotherapy

A systematic review on hyaluronic acid coated nanoparticles: recent strategy in breast cancer management

Hyaluronic acid, a non-sulphated glycosaminoglycan has attracted its usage in the management of breast cancer. Drug-loaded nanoparticles with hyaluronic acid surface modifications show potential as a promising method for targeting and delivering drugs to the tumor site. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review of articles and assess the impact of hyaluronic acid coated nanoparticles on breast cancer. The various database were used for this comprehensive review. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies associated with characterization, in vitro, and in vivo studies were collected and subjected for further analysis. According to the inclusion criteria, 41 literature were selected for analysis. From all the studies, it was observed that the nanoparticles coated with hyaluronic acid produced better particle size, shape, zeta potential, increased in vitro cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, cell apoptosis, and anti-tumor effect in vivo. Research has shown that hyaluronic acid exhibits a higher affinity for CD44 receptors, resulting in enhanced targeted nanoparticle activity on cancer cells while sparing normal cells.

Chitosan- and hyaluronic acid-based nanoarchitectures in phototherapy: Combination cancer chemotherapy, immunotherapy and gene therapy

Cancer phototherapy has been introduced as a new potential modality for tumor suppression. However, the efficacy of phototherapy has been limited due to a lack of targeted delivery of photosensitizers. Therefore, the application of biocompatible and multifunctional nanoparticles in phototherapy is appreciated. Chitosan (CS) as a cationic polymer and hyaluronic acid (HA) as a CD44-targeting agent are two widely utilized polymers in nanoparticle synthesis and functionalization. The current review focuses on the application of HA and CS nanostructures in cancer phototherapy. These nanocarriers can be used in phototherapy to induce hyperthermia and singlet oxygen generation for tumor ablation. CS and HA can be used for the synthesis of nanostructures, or they can functionalize other kinds of nanostructures used for phototherapy, such as gold nanorods. The HA and CS nanostructures can combine chemotherapy or immunotherapy with phototherapy to augment tumor suppression. Moreover, the CS nanostructures can be functionalized with HA for specific cancer phototherapy. The CS and HA nanostructures promote the cellular uptake of genes and photosensitizers to facilitate gene therapy and phototherapy. Such nanostructures specifically stimulate phototherapy at the tumor site, with particle toxic impacts on normal cells. Moreover, CS and HA nanostructures demonstrate high biocompatibility for further clinical applications.

The bioengineering application of hyaluronic acid in tissue regeneration and repair

The multifaceted role of hyaluronic acid (HA) across diverse biomedical disciplines underscores its versatility in tissue regeneration and repair. HA hydrogels employ different crosslinking including chemical (chitosan, collagen), photo- initiation (riboflavin, LAP), enzymatic (HRP/H2O2), and physical interactions (hydrogen bonds, metal coordination). In biophysics and biochemistry, HA's signaling pathways, primarily through CD44 and RHAMM receptors, modulate cell behavior (cell migration; internalization of HA), inflammation, and wound healing. Particularly, smaller HA fragments stimulate inflammatory responses through toll-like receptors, impacting macrophages and cytokine expression. HA's implications in oncology highlight its involvement in tumor progression, metastasis, and treatment. Elevated HA in tumor stroma impacts apoptosis resistance and promotes tumor growth, presenting potential therapeutic targets to halt tumor progression. In orthopedics, HA's presence in synovial fluid aids in osteoarthritis management, as its supplementation alleviates pain, enhances synovial fluid's viscoelastic properties, and promotes cartilage integrity. In ophthalmology, HA's application in dry eye syndrome addresses symptoms by moisturizing the eyes, replenishing tear film deficiencies, and facilitating wound healing. Intravitreal injections and hydrogel-based systems offer versatile approaches for drug delivery and vitreous humor replacement. For skin regeneration and wound healing, HA hydrogel dressings exhibit exceptional properties by promoting moist wound healing and facilitating tissue repair. Integration of advanced regenerative tools like stem cells and solubilized amnion membranes into HA-based systems accelerates wound closure and tissue recovery. Overall, HA's unique properties and interactions render it a promising candidate across diverse biomedical domains, showcasing immense potentials in tissue regeneration and therapeutic interventions. Nevertheless, many detailed cellular and molecular mechanisms of HA and its applications remain unexplored and warrant further investigation.

Current development of theragnostic nanoparticles for women's cancer treatment

In the biomedical industry, nanoparticles (NPs-exclusively small particles with size ranging from 1-100 nanometres) are recently employed as powerful tools due to their huge potential in sophisticated and enhanced cancer theragnostic (i.e. therapeutics and diagnostics). Cancer is a life-threatening disease caused by carcinogenic agents and mutation in cells, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and harming the body's normal functioning while affecting several factors like low levels of reactive oxygen species, hyperactive antiapoptotic mRNA expression, reduced proapoptotic mRNA expression, damaged DNA repair, and so on. NPs are extensively used in early cancer diagnosis and are functionalized to target receptors overexpressing cancer cells for effective cancer treatment. This review focuses explicitly on how NPs alone and combined with imaging techniques and advanced treatment techniques have been researched against 'women's cancer' such as breast, ovarian, and cervical cancer which are substantially occurring in women. NPs, in combination with numerous imaging techniques (like PET, SPECT, MRI, etc) have been widely explored for cancer imaging and understanding tumor characteristics. Moreover, NPs in combination with various advanced cancer therapeutics (like magnetic hyperthermia, pH responsiveness, photothermal therapy, etc), have been stated to be more targeted and effective therapeutic strategies with negligible side effects. Furthermore, this review will further help to improve treatment outcomes and patient quality of life based on the theragnostic application-based studies of NPs in women's cancer treatment.

Construction of intelligent drug delivery system based on polysaccharide-derived polymer micelles: A review

Micelles are nanostructures developed via the spontaneous assembly of amphiphilic polymers in aqueous systems, which possess the advantages of high drug stability or active-ingredient solubilization, targeted transport, controlled release, high bioactivity, and stability. Polysaccharides have excellent water solubility, biocompatibility, and degradability, and can be modified to achieve a hydrophobic core to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs, improve drug biocompatibility, and achieve regulated delivery of the loaded drug. Micelles drug delivery systems based on polysaccharides and their derivatives show great potential in the biomedical field. This review discusses the principles of self-assembly of amphiphilic polymers and the formation of micelles; the preparation of amphiphilic polysaccharides is described in detail, and an overview of common polysaccharides and their modifications is provided. We focus on the review of strategies for encapsulating drugs in polysaccharide-derived polymer micelles (PDPMs) and building intelligent drug delivery systems. This review provides new research directions that will help promote future research and development of PDPMs in the field of drug carriers.

Hyaluronic acid-empowered nanotheranostics in breast and lung cancers therapy

Nanomedicine application in cancer therapy is an urgency because of inability of current biological therapies for complete removal of tumor cells. The development of smart and novel nanoplatforms for treatment of cancer can provide new insight in tumor suppression. Hyaluronic acid is a biopolymer that can be employed for synthesis of smart nanostructures capable of selective targeting CD44-overexpressing tumor cells. The breast and lung cancers are among the most malignant and common tumors in both females and males that environmental factors, lifestyle and genomic alterations are among the risk factors for their pathogenesis and development. Since etiology of breast and lung tumors is not certain and multiple factors participate in their development, preventative measures have not been completely successful and studies have focused on developing new treatment strategies for them. The aim of current review is to provide a comprehensive discussion about application of hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures for treatment of breast and lung cancers. The main reason of using hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles is their ability in targeting breast and lung cancers in a selective way due to upregulation of CD44 receptor on their surface. Moreover, nanocarriers developed from hyaluronic acid or functionalized with hyaluronic acid have high biocompatibility and their safety is appreciated. The drugs and genes used for treatment of breast and lung cancers lack specific accumulation at cancer site and their cytotoxicity is low, but hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures provide their targeted delivery to tumor site and by increasing internalization of drugs and genes in breast and lung tumor cells, they improve their therapeutic index. Furthermore, hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures can be used for phototherapy-mediated breast and lung cancers ablation. The stimuli-responsive and smart kinds of hyaluronic acid-based nanostructures such as pH- and light-responsive can increase selective targeting of breast and lung cancers.

Multifunctional polysaccharide nanoprobes for biological imaging

Imaging and tracking biological targets or processes play an important role in revealing molecular mechanisms and disease states. Bioimaging via optical, nuclear, or magnetic resonance techniques enables high resolution, high sensitivity, and high depth imaging from the whole animal down to single cells via advanced functional nanoprobes. To overcome the limitations of single-modality imaging, multimodality nanoprobes have been engineered with a variety of imaging modalities and functionalities. Polysaccharides are sugar-containing bioactive polymers with superior biocompatibility, biodegradability, and solubility. The combination of polysaccharides with single or multiple contrast agents facilitates the development of novel nanoprobes with enhanced functions for biological imaging. Nanoprobes constructed with clinically applicable polysaccharides and contrast agents hold great potential for clinical translations. This review briefly introduces the basics of different imaging modalities and polysaccharides, then summarizes the recent progress of polysaccharide-based nanoprobes for biological imaging in various diseases, emphasizing bioimaging with optical, nuclear, and magnetic resonance techniques. The current issues and future directions regarding the development and applications of polysaccharide nanoprobes are further discussed.

Polysaccharide-based nanoassemblies: From synthesis methodologies and industrial applications to future prospects

Polysaccharides, due to their remarkable features, have gained significant prominence in the sustainable production of nanoparticles (NPs). High market demand and minimal production cost, compared to the chemically synthesised NPs, demonstrate a drive towards polysaccharide-based nanoparticles (PSNPs) benign to environment. Various approaches are used for the synthesis of PSNPs including cross-linking, polyelectrolyte complexation, and self-assembly. PSNPs have the potential to replace a wide diversity of chemical-based agents within the food, health, medical and pharmacy sectors. Nevertheless, the considerable challenges associated with optimising the characteristics of PSNPs to meet specific targeting applications are of utmost importance. This review provides a detailed compilation of recent accomplishments in the synthesis of PSNPs, the fundamental principles and critical factors that govern their rational fabrication, as well as various characterisation techniques. Noteworthy, the multiple use of PSNPs in different disciplines such as biomedical, cosmetics agrochemicals, energy storage, water detoxification, and food-related realms, is accounted in detail. Insights into the toxicological impacts of the PSNPs and their possible risks to human health are addressed, and efforts made in terms of PSNPs development and optimising strategies that allow for enhanced delivery are highlighted. Finally, limitations, potential drawbacks, market diffusion, economic viability and future possibilities for PSNPs to achieve widespread commercial use are also discussed.

In vivo Biodistribution and Clearance of Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Medical Applications

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (magnetite and maghemite) are intensively studied due to their broad potential applications in medical and biological sciences. Their unique properties, such as nanometric size, large specific surface area, and superparamagnetism, allow them to be used in targeted drug delivery and internal radiotherapy by targeting an external magnetic field. In addition, they are successfully used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), hyperthermia, and radiolabelling. The appropriate design of nanoparticles allows them to be delivered to the desired tissues and organs. The desired biodistribution of nanoparticles, eg, cancerous tumors, is increased using an external magnetic field. Thus, knowledge of the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is essential for medical applications. It allows for determining whether nanoparticles are captured by the desired organs or accumulated in other tissues, which may lead to potential toxicity. This review article presents the main organs where nanoparticles accumulate. The sites of their first uptake are usually the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes, but with the appropriate design of nanoparticles, they can also be accumulated in organs such as the lungs, heart, or brain. In addition, the review describes the factors affecting the biodistribution of nanoparticles, including their size, shape, surface charge, coating molecules, and route of administration. Modern techniques for determining nanoparticle accumulation sites and concentration in isolated tissues or the body in vivo are also presented.

Hyaluronic Acid Modified Metal Nanoparticles and Their Derived Substituents for Cancer Therapy: A Review

The use of metal nanoparticles (M-NPs) in cancer therapy has gained significant consideration owing to their exceptional physical and chemical features. However, due to the limitations, such as specificity and toxicity towards healthy cells, their application in clinical translations has been restricted. Hyaluronic acid (HA), a biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide, has been extensively used as a targeting moiety, due to its ability to selectively bind to the CD44 receptors overexpressed on cancer cells. The HA-modified M-NPs have demonstrated promising results in improving specificity and efficacy in cancer therapy. This review discusses the significance of nanotechnology, the state of cancers, and the functions of HA-modified M-NPs, and other substituents in cancer therapy applications. Additionally, the role of various types of selected noble and non-noble M-NPs used in cancer therapy are described, along with the mechanisms involved in cancer targeting. Additionally, the purpose of HA, its sources and production processes, as well as its chemical and biological properties are described. In-depth explanations are provided about the contemporary applications of HA-modified noble and non-noble M-NPs and other substituents in cancer therapy. Furthermore, potential obstacles in optimizing HA-modified M-NPs, in terms of clinical translations, are discussed, followed by a conclusion and future prospects.

Hyaluronic Acid-Based Nanocarriers for Anticancer Drug Delivery

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a main component of the extracellular matrix, is widely utilized to deliver anticancer drugs due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity and numerous modification sites, such as carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. Moreover, HA serves as a natural ligand for tumor-targeted drug delivery systems, as it contains the endocytic HA receptor, CD44, which is overexpressed in many cancer cells. Therefore, HA-based nanocarriers have been developed to improve drug delivery efficiency and distinguish between healthy and cancerous tissues, resulting in reduced residual toxicity and off-target accumulation. This article comprehensively reviews the fabrication of anticancer drug nanocarriers based on HA in the context of prodrugs, organic carrier materials (micelles, liposomes, nanoparticles, microbubbles and hydrogels) and inorganic composite nanocarriers (gold nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes and silicon dioxide). Additionally, the progress achieved in the design and optimization of these nanocarriers and their effects on cancer therapy are discussed. Finally, the review provides a summary of the perspectives, the lessons learned so far and the outlook towards further developments in this field.

Carbohydrate ligands-directed active tumor targeting of combinatorial chemotherapy/phototherapy-based nanomedicine: A review

Phototherapies or light mediated therapies, including mutually photothermal and photodynamic therapy that encompass irradiation of the target organs with light, have been widely employed as minimally invasive approach associated with negligible drug resistance for eradicating multiple tumors with minimal hazards to normal organs. Despite all these advantages, many obstacles in phototherapy hinder progress toward clinical application. Therefore, researchers have developed nano-particulate delivery systems integrated with phototherapy and therapeutic cytotoxic drugs to overcome these obstacles and achieve maximum efficacy in cancer treatment. Active targeting ligands were integrated into their surfaces to improve the selectivity and tumor targeting ability, enabling easy binding and recognition by cellular receptors overexpressed on the tumor tissue compared to normal ones. This enhances intratumoral accumulation with minimal toxicity on the adjacent normal cells. Various active targeting ligands, including antibodies, aptamers, peptides, lactoferrin, folic acid and carbohydrates, have been explored for the targeted delivery of chemotherapy/phototherapy-based nanomedicine. Among these ligands, carbohydrates have been applied due to their unique features that ameliorate the bioadhesive, noncovalent conjugation to biological tissues. In this review, the up-to-date techniques of employing carbohydrates active targeting ligands will be highlighted concerning the surface modification of the nanoparticles for ameliorating the targeting ability of the chemo/phototherapy.

In Vitro Studies of Pegylated Magnetite Nanoparticles in a Cellular Model of Viral Oncogenesis: Initial Studies to Evaluate Their Potential as a Future Theranostic Tool

Magnetic nanosystems represent promising alternatives to the traditional diagnostic and treatment procedures available for different pathologies. In this work, a series of biological tests are proposed, aiming to validate a magnetic nanoplatform for Kaposi's sarcoma treatment. The selected nanosystems were polyethylene glycol-coated iron oxide nanoparticles (MAG.PEG), which were prepared by the hydrothermal method. Physicochemical characterization was performed to verify their suitable physicochemical properties to be administered in vivo. Exhaustive biological assays were conducted, aiming to validate this platform in a specific biomedical field related to viral oncogenesis diseases. As a first step, the MAG.PEG cytotoxicity was evaluated in a cellular model of Kaposi's sarcoma. By phase contrast microscopy, it was found that cell morphology remained unchanged regardless of the nanoparticles' concentration (1-150 µg mL^-1). The results, arising from the crystal violet technique, revealed that the proliferation was also unaffected. In addition, cell viability analysis by MTS and neutral red assays revealed a significant increase in metabolic and lysosomal activity at high concentrations of MAG.PEG (100-150 µg mL^-1). Moreover, an increase in ROS levels was observed at the highest concentration of MAG.PEG. Second, the iron quantification assays performed by Prussian blue staining showed that MAG.PEG cellular accumulation is dose dependent. Furthermore, the presence of vesicles containing MAG.PEG inside the cells was confirmed by TEM. Finally, the MAG.PEG steering was achieved using a static magnetic field generated by a moderate power magnet. In conclusion, MAG.PEG at a moderate concentration would be a suitable drug carrier for Kaposi's sarcoma treatment, avoiding adverse effects on normal tissues. The data included in this contribution appear as the first stage in proposing this platform as a suitable future theranostic to improve Kaposi's sarcoma therapy.

Multifunctional nanoparticle for cancer therapy

Cancer is a complex disease associated with a combination of abnormal physiological process and exhibiting dysfunctions in multiple systems. To provide effective treatment and diagnosis for cancer, current treatment strategies simultaneously focus on various tumor targets. Based on the rapid development of nanotechnology, nanocarriers have been shown to exhibit excellent potential for cancer therapy. Compared with nanoparticles with single functions, multifunctional nanoparticles are believed to be more aggressive and potent in the context of tumor targeting. However, the development of multifunctional nanoparticles is not simply an upgraded version of the original function, but involves a sophisticated system with a proper backbone, optimized modification sites, simple preparation method, and efficient function integration. Despite this, many well-designed multifunctional nanoparticles with promising therapeutic potential have emerged recently. Here, to give a detailed understanding and analyzation of the currently developed multifunctional nanoparticles, their platform structures with organic or inorganic backbones were systemically generalized. We emphasized on the functionalization and modification strategies, which provide additional functions to the nanoparticle. We also discussed the application combination strategies that were involved in the development of nanoformulations with functional crosstalk. This review thus provides an overview of the construction strategies and application advances of multifunctional nanoparticles.

AIE-Featured Redox-Sensitive Micelles for Bioimaging and Efficient Anticancer Drug Delivery

In the present study, an amphiphilic polymer was prepared by conjugating methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG) with tetraphenylethene (TPE) via disulfide bonds (Bi(mPEG-S-S)-TPE). The polymer could self-assemble into micelles and solubilize hydrophobic anticancer drugs such as paclitaxel (PTX) in the core. Combining the effect of TPE, mPEG, and disulfide bonds, the Bi(mPEG-S-S)-TPE micelles exhibited excellent AIE feature, reduced protein adsorption, and redox-sensitive drug release behavior. An in vitro intracellular uptake study demonstrated the great imaging ability and efficient internalization of Bi(mPEG-S-S)-TPE micelles. The excellent anticancer effect and low systemic toxicity were further evidenced by the in vivo anticancer experiment. The Bi(mPEG-S-S)-TPE micelles were promising drug carriers for chemotherapy and bioimaging.

Physically stimulus-responsive nanoparticles for therapy and diagnosis

Nanoparticles offer numerous advantages in various fields of science, particularly in medicine. Over recent years, the use of nanoparticles in disease diagnosis and treatments has increased dramatically by the development of stimuli-responsive nano-systems, which can respond to internal or external stimuli. In the last 10 years, many preclinical studies were performed on physically triggered nano-systems to develop and optimize stable, precise, and selective therapeutic or diagnostic agents. In this regard, the systems must meet the requirements of efficacy, toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and safety before clinical investigation. Several undesired aspects need to be addressed to successfully translate these physical stimuli-responsive nano-systems, as biomaterials, into clinical practice. These have to be commonly taken into account when developing physically triggered systems; thus, also applicable for nano-systems based on nanomaterials. This review focuses on physically triggered nano-systems (PTNSs), with diagnostic or therapeutic and theranostic applications. Several types of physically triggered nano-systems based on polymeric micelles and hydrogels, mesoporous silica, and magnets are reviewed and discussed in various aspects.

Natural and Synthetic Micelles for Delivery of Small Molecule Drugs, Imaging Agents and Nucleic Acids

The poor solubility, lack of targetability, quick renal clearance, and degradability of many therapeutic and imaging agents strongly limit their applications inside the human body. Amphiphilic copolymers having self-assembling properties can form core-shell structures called micelles, a promising nanocarrier for hydrophobic drugs, plasmid DNA, oligonucleotides, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and imaging agents. Fabrication of micelles loaded with different pharmaceutical agents provides numerous advantages including therapeutic efficacy, diagnostic sensitivity, and controlled release to the desired tissues. Moreover, due to their smaller particle size (10-100 nm) and modified surfaces with different functional groups (such as ligands) help them to accumulate easily in the target location, enhancing cellular uptake and reducing unwanted side effects. Furthermore, the release of the encapsulated agents may also be triggered from stimuli-sensitive micelles at different physiological conditions or by an external stimulus. In this review article, we discuss the recent advancement in formulating and targeting different natural and synthetic micelles including block copolymer micelles, cationic micelles, and dendrimers-, polysaccharide- and protein-based micelles for the delivery of different therapeutic and diagnostic agents. Finally, their applications, outcomes, and future perspectives have been summarized.

Quantification and 3D localization of magnetically navigated superparamagnetic particles using MRI in phantom and swine chemoembolization models

OBJECTIVE

Superparamagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) can be combined with tumor chemoembolization agents to form magnetic drug-eluting beads (MDEBs), which are navigated magnetically in the MRI scanner through the vascular system. We aim to develop a method to accurately quantify and localize these particles and to validate the method in phantoms and swine models.

METHODS

MDEBs were made of Fe₃O₄ SPIONs. After injected known numbers of MDEBs, susceptibility artifacts in three-dimensional (3D) volumetric interpolated breath-hold examination (VIBE) sequences were acquired in glass and Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) phantoms, and two living swine. Image processing of VIBE images provided the volume relationship between MDEBs and their artifact at different VIBE acquisitions and post-processing parameters. Simulated hepatic-artery embolization was performed in vivo with an MRI-conditional magnetic-injection system, using the volume relationship to locate and quantify MDEB distribution.

RESULTS

Individual MDEBs were spatially identified, and their artifacts quantified, showing no correlation with magnetic-field orientation or sequence bandwidth, but exhibiting a relationship with echo time and providing a linear volume relationship. Two MDEB aggregates were magnetically steered into desired liver regions while the other 19 had no steering, and 25 aggregates were injected into another swine without steering. The MDEBs were spatially identified and the volume relationship showed accuracy in assessing the number of the MDEBs, with small errors (8.8%).

CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE

MDEBs were able to be steered into desired body regions and then localized using 3D VIBE sequences. The resulting volume relationship was linear, robust, and allowed for quantitative analysis of the MDEB distribution.

Preparation of doxorubicin-loaded porous iron Oxide@ polydopamine nanocomposites for MR imaging and synergistic photothermal-chemotherapy of cancer

Recently, the development of biosafe nanocomposites with integrated diagnosis and therapeutic modality is received great attention in anti-cancer drug delivery. In this sturdy, we developed a multifunctional PION@PDA-PEG nanocomposite that combines the functions of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemotherapy into one single nanoprobe. The spherical and uniform-sized porous iron oxide nanoparticles (PION) were synthesized via a simple solvothermal method. Subsequently, a near-infrared light (NIR) sensitive polydopamine (PDA) shell was directly coated on the surface of PIONs to form monodisperse and biosafe core-shell nanocomposites, Thereafter, the surface of nanocomposites was further modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) to prolong their blood circulation lifetime. The prepared PION@PDA-PEG showed excellent biocompatibility and promising MR imaging contrast agent capability. Furthermore, the porous structure of PION and the abundant functional groups of PDA shell permitted the remarkable drug loading capacity of more than 24.1 wt%. In addition, the synergistic photothermal- chemotherapy exhibited obvious enhanced anti-tumor effect in in-vitro cell experiment. These results suggest that the developed PION@PDA-PEG nanocomposite can be utilized as an efficient drug nanocarrier for biomedical applications including MR imaging and photothermal-chemotherapy.

Hyaluronan-based Multifunctional Nano-carriers for Combination Cancer Therapy

Hyaluronan (HA) is a natural linear polysaccharide that has excellent hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low immunogenicity, making it one of the most attractive biopolymers used for biomedical researches and applications. Due to the multiple functional sites on HA and its intrinsic affinity for CD44, a receptor highly expressed on various cancer cells, HA has been widely engineered to construct different drug-loading nanoparticles (NPs) for CD44-targeted anti-tumor therapy. When a cocktail of drugs is co-loaded in HA NP, a multifunctional nano-carriers could be obtained, which features as a highly effective and self-targeting strategy to combat cancers with CD44 overexpression. The HA-based multidrug nano-carriers can be a combination of different drugs, various therapeutic modalities, or the integration of therapy and diagnostics (theranostics). Up to now, there are many types of HA-based multidrug nano-carriers constructed by different formulation strategies, including drug co-conjugates, micelles, nano-gels and hybrid NP of HA and so on. This multidrug nano-carrier takes the full advantages of HA as an NP matrix, drug carriers and targeting ligand, representing a simplified and biocompatible platform to realize the targeted and synergistic combination therapy against the cancers. In this review, recent progress of HA-based multidrug nano-carriers for combination cancer therapy is summarized and the potential challenges for translational applications have been discussed.

Imaging Constructs: The Rise of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

Over the last decade, an important challenge in nanomedicine imaging has been the work to design multifunctional agents that can be detected by single and/or multimodal techniques. Among the broad spectrum of nanoscale materials being investigated for imaging use, iron oxide nanoparticles have gained significant attention due to their intrinsic magnetic properties, low toxicity, large magnetic moments, superparamagnetic behaviour and large surface area-the latter being a particular advantage in its conjunction with specific moieties, dye molecules, and imaging probes. Tracers-based nanoparticles are promising candidates, since they combine synergistic advantages for non-invasive, highly sensitive, high-resolution, and quantitative imaging on different modalities. This study represents an overview of current advancements in magnetic materials with clinical potential that will hopefully provide an effective system for diagnosis in the near future. Further exploration is still needed to reveal their potential as promising candidates from simple functionalization of metal oxide nanomaterials up to medical imaging.

Harnessing amphiphilic polymeric micelles for diagnostic and therapeutic applications: Breakthroughs and bottlenecks

Amphiphilic block copolymers are widely utilized in the design of formulations owing to their unique physicochemical properties, flexible structures and functional chemistry. Amphiphilic polymeric micelles (APMs) formed from such copolymers have gained attention of the drug delivery scientists in past few decades for enhancing the bioavailability of lipophilic drugs, molecular targeting, sustained release, stimuli-responsive properties, enhanced therapeutic efficacy and reducing drug associated toxicity. Their properties including ease of surface modification, high surface area, small size, and enhanced permeation as well as retention (EPR) effect are mainly responsible for their utilization in the diagnosis and therapy of various diseases. However, some of the challenges associated with their use are premature drug release, low drug loading capacity, scale-up issues and their poor stability that need to be addressed for their wider clinical utility and commercialization. This review describes comprehensively their physicochemical properties, various methods of preparation, limitations followed by approaches employed for the development of optimized APMs, the impact of each preparation technique on the physicochemical properties of the resulting APMs as well as various biomedical applications of APMs. Based on the current scenario of their use in treatment and diagnosis of diseases, the directions in which future studies need to be carried out to explore their full potential are also discussed.

Superparamagnetic nanoparticles for biomedical applications

In this review, we summarized recent advances in the development and biological applications of polymeric nanoparticles embedded with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). Superparamagnetic polymeric nanoparticles include core-shell nanoparticles, superparamagnetic polymeric micelles and superparamagnetic polymersomes. They have potential for various biomedical applications, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents, drug delivery, detection of bacteria, viruses and proteins, etc. Finally, the challenges in the design and preparation of superparamagnetic nanoparticles towards clinical applications are explored and the prospects in this field are proposed.

Grade-targeted nanoparticles for improved hypoxic tumor microenvironment and enhanced photodynamic cancer therapy

Background: The hypoxia of the tumor microenvironment (TME), low transfer efficiency of photosensitizers and limited diffusion distance of reactive oxygen species restrict the application of photodynamic therapy (PDT). Aim: To produce TME-responsive and effective nanoparticles for sensitizing PDT. Materials & methods: CD44 and mitochondria grade-targeted hyaluronic acid (HA)-triphenylphosphine (TPP)-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-catalase (CAT) nanoparticles (HTACNPs) were synthesized via a modified double-emulsion method. In vitro and in vivo experiments were performed to investigate the antitumor efficacy of HTACNP-mediated PDT. Results: HTACNPs specifically targeted MV3 cells and the mitochondria and produced O₂ to relieve TME hypoxia. HTACNP-mediated PDT produced reactive oxygen species to induce irreversible cell apoptosis. HTACNP-PDT inhibited melanoma growth effectively in vivo. Conclusion: HTACNP-mediated PDT improved TME hypoxia and effectively enhanced PDT for cancer.

Micellar Drug Delivery Systems Based on Natural Biopolymers

The broad diversity of structures and the presence of numerous functional groups available for chemical modifications represent an enormous advantage for the development of safe, non-toxic, and cost-effective micellar drug delivery systems (DDS) based on natural biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, proteins, and peptides. Different drug-loading methods are used for the preparation of these micellar systems, but it appeared that dialysis is generally recommended, as it avoids the formation of large micellar aggregates. Moreover, the preparation method has an important influence on micellar size, morphology, and drug loading efficiency. The small size allows the passive accumulation of these micellar systems via the permeability and retention effect. Natural biopolymer-based micellar DDS are high-value biomaterials characterized by good compatibility, biodegradability, long blood circulation time, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, and high drug loading, and they are biodegraded to non-toxic products that are easily assimilated by the human body. Even if some recent studies reported better antitumoral effects for the micellar DDS based on polysaccharides than for commercial formulations, their clinical use is not yet generalized. This review is focused on the studies from the last decade concerning the preparation as well as the colloidal and biological characterization of micellar DDS based on natural biopolymers.

Multitherapy magnetic theranostic: Synthesis, characterization and in vitro evaluation of their performance

It is well known that iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (IONPs) have many potential utilities in biomedicine due to their unique physicochemical properties. With the aim to obtain multifunctional nanoparticles with potential uses for therapy and diagnosis (nanotheranostics), IONPs were synthesized by hydrothermal synthesis assisted by mannose. Two synthetic pathways were evaluated in order to obtain IONPs with suitable properties for biomedical applications. The formulation Mag@Man/H1 presented the best characteristics in terms of size and stability. Mag@Man/H1 was evaluated as: a) drug carrier, b) antioxidant activity, c) magnetic hyperthermia, d) contrast agent for MRI. To evaluate the point a), morin, a natural flavonoid with several pharmaceutical activities, was loaded on the nanoparticles. A high percentage of drug loading was achieved. In point b) it was determined that the carrier itself possess a high activity which increased in morin loaded nanoparticles. Point c) magnetocalorimetric evaluation were carried out at several field conditions. A specific absorption rate value of 121.4 W/gFe was achieved at 52.4 kA/m and 260 kHz and 8.8 W/gFe at 4 kA/m and 100 kHz. Regarding contrast capacity (point d), the r1 value found was close to some contrast agent based on manganese. Although the measured r2 value was quite smaller than other iron oxides, the achieved effect was strong enough to produce negative contrast. From these studies, it was concluded that Mag@Man/H1 could act as a multifunctional nanoplatform for oncological diseases treatments.

Multiwavelength Phototactic Micromotor with Controllable Swarming Motion for "Chemistry-on-the-Fly"

Artificial nano/micromotors that represent the next-generation automotive microdevices hold considerable promise in various potential applications. However, it is a great challenge to design light-powered micro/nanomotors with effective propulsion that can fulfill diverse tasks. Herein, a multilight-responsive micromotor is fabricated by in situ precipitation of photothermal Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (NPs) onto different microparticles. The composites exhibit phototactic swarming movement by irradiation at 320-550 nm, which can be reversibly and remotely manipulated by irradiation position, "on/off" switch, and light intensity. The micromotor made of Fe₃O₄@poly(glycidyl methacrylate)/polystyrene (Fe₃O₄@PGS) core-shell particles presents a propulsion speed as high as 270 μm/s under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Using an array of experimental methods and numerical simulations, thermal convection mechanism is proposed for the propulsion. Namely, under light irradiation, the photogenerated heat on Fe₃O₄ NPs decreases the density of the irradiated spot, leading to the swarming motion of the composite particles propelled by a "hydrodynamic drag" toward the light spot. Then, Fe₃O₄@PGS is exploited as a platform for performing "chemistry-on-the-fly" using both the catalytic efficiency of Fe₃O₄ NPs and an immobilized enzyme (lipase). It is found that the propulsion increases the catalytic efficiency of Fe₃O₄ NPs for rhodamine B degradation by over 10 times under sunlight. Moreover, it is proved to accelerate the enzymatic reactions of lipase on Fe₃O₄@PGS in both aqueous and organic systems by more than 50%. Such a multiwavelength phototactic swimmer paves the way to the design of advanced micromotors for various applications, such as drug delivery, microsurgery, and sensing.

Tailoring Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Efficient Cellular Internalization and Endosomal Escape

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) have been widely explored for biomedical applications due to their high biocompatibility, surface-coating versatility, and superparamagnetic properties. Upon exposure to an external magnetic field, IONs can be precisely directed to a region of interest and serve as exceptional delivery vehicles and cellular markers. However, the design of nanocarriers that achieve an efficient endocytic uptake, escape lysosomal degradation, and perform precise intracellular functions is still a challenge for their application in translational medicine. This review highlights several aspects that mediate the activation of the endosomal pathways, as well as the different properties that govern endosomal escape and nuclear transfection of magnetic IONs. In particular, we review a variety of ION surface modification alternatives that have emerged for facilitating their endocytic uptake and their timely escape from endosomes, with special emphasis on how these can be manipulated for the rational design of cell-penetrating vehicles. Moreover, additional modifications for enhancing nuclear transfection are also included in the design of therapeutic vehicles that must overcome this barrier. Understanding these mechanisms opens new perspectives in the strategic development of vehicles for cell tracking, cell imaging and the targeted intracellular delivery of drugs and gene therapy sequences and vectors.

Combination of magnetic targeting with synergistic inhibition of NF-κB and glutathione via micellar drug nanomedicine enhances its anti-tumor efficacy

Breast cancer is not only one of the most prevalent types of cancer, but also it is a prime cause of death in women aged between 20 and 59. Although chemotherapy is the most common therapy approach, multiple side effects can result from lack of specificity and the use of overdose as safe doses may not completely cure cancer. Therefore, we aimed in this study is to combine the merits of NF-κB inhibiting potential of celastrol (CST) with glutathione inhibitory effect of sulfasalazine (SFZ) which prevents CST inactivation and thus enhances its anti-tumor activity. Inspired by the CD44-mediated tumor targeting effect of the hydrophilic polysaccharide chondroitin sulphate (ChS), we chemically synthesized amphiphilic zein-ChS micelles. While the water insoluble SFZ was chemically coupled to zein, CST was physically entrapped within the hydrophobic zein/SFZ micellar core. Moreover, physical encapsulation of oleic acid-capped SPIONs in the hydrophobic core of micelles enabled both magnetic tumor targeting as well as MRI theranostic capacity. Combining magnetic targeting to with the active targeting effect of ChS resulted in enhanced cellular internalization of the micelles in MCF-7 cancer cells and hence higher cytotoxic effect against MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. In the in vivo experiments, magnetically-targeted micelles (154.4 nm) succeeded in achieving the lowest percentage increase in the tumor volume in tumor bearing mice, the highest percentage of tumor necrosis associated with significant reduction in the levels of TNF-α, Ki-67, NF-κB, VEGF, COX-2 markers compared to non-magnetically targeted micelles-, free drug-treated and positive control groups. Collectively, the developed magnetically targeted micelles pave the way for design of cancer nano-theranostic drug combinations.

Development of stimuli-responsive intelligent polymer micelles for the delivery of doxorubicin

Doxorubicin is still used as a first-line drug in current therapeutics for numerous types of malignant tumours (including lymphoma, transplantable leukaemia and solid tumour). Nevertheless, to overcome the serious side effects like cardiotoxicity and myelosuppression caused by effective doses of doxorubicin remains as a world-class puzzle. In recent years, the usage of biocompatible polymeric nanomaterials to form an intelligently sensitive carrier for the targeted release in tumour microenvironment has attracted wide attention. These different intelligent polymeric micelles (PMs) could change the pharmacokinetics process of drugs or respond in the special microenvironment of tumour site to maximise the efficacy and reduce the toxicity of doxorubicin in other tissues and organs. Several intelligent PMs have already been in the clinical research stage and planned for market. Therefore, related research remains active, and the latest nanotechnology approaches for doxorubicin delivery are always in the spotlight. Centring on the model drugs doxorubicin, this review summarised the mechanisms of PMs, classified the polymers used in the application of doxorubicin delivery and discussed some interesting and imaginative smart PMs in recent years.

Recent advantage of hyaluronic acid for anti-cancer application: a review of "3S" transition approach

In recent years, nano drug delivery system has been widely concerned because of its good therapeutic effect. However, the process from blood circulation to cancer cell release of nanodrugs will be eliminated by the human body's own defense trap, thus reducing the therapeutic effect. In recent years, a "3S" transition concept, including stability transition, surface transition and size transition, was proposed to overcome the barriers in delivery process. Hyaluronic (HA) acid has been widely used in delivery of anticancer drugs due to its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability and specific targeting to cancer cells. In this paper, the strategies and methods of HA-based nanomaterials using "3S" theory are reviewed. The applications and effects of "3S" modified nanomaterials in various fields are also introduced.

Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) for Diagnosis and Treatment of Breast, Ovarian and Cervical Cancers

Background:

The potential of Super Paramagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) as theranostic agents for cancer has been investigated extensively. SPIONS can be utilized for diagnostic imaging, drug delivery as well as for therapeutic applications. SPIONS are of particular interest because of their potential for non-invasive diagnosis and non-invasive therapeutic applications. This article is a review of in vivo and clinical studies of SPIONs for diagnosis and treatment of breast, ovarian and cervical cancer. The current limitations of this technology with relation to clinical therapeutic applications and the potential to overcome these limitations are also discussed.

Methods:

NCBI Pubmed was searched for relevant documents by using keyword and MESH based search. The following keyword combinations were used: ‘breast cancer’ and SPION, ‘ovarian cancer’ and SPION, and ‘cervical cancer’ and SPION. The resulting list was manually scanned for the studies involving clinical and in vivo studies.

Results:

The 29 most relevant publications were identified and reviewed.

Conclusion:

Although numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the safety and effectiveness of the use of SPIONs for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications, there is relatively little progress towards translation to clinical applications involving breast, ovarian and cervical cancer.

Preparation of AS1411 Aptamer Modified Mn-MoS2 QDs for Targeted MR Imaging and Fluorescence Labelling of Renal Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Early diagnosis of renal cell carcinoma is extremely significant for the effective treatment of kidney cancer. The development of AS1411 aptamer modified Mn-MoS2 QDs provides a promising fluorescence/magnetic resonance (MR) dual-modal imaging probe for the precise diagnosis of renal clear cell carcinoma.

METHODS

In this work, Mn-MoS₂ QDs were synthesized through a simple "bottom-up" one-step hydrothermal method. AS1411 aptamer was modified on the Mn-MoS₂ QDs to improve the specificity to renal cell carcinoma. The characteristics of Mn-MoS₂ QDs were confirmed by transmission electronic microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS), photoluminescence (PL) emission spectra, etc. Cellular fluorescence labelling was investigated using the Mn-MoS₂ QDs and AS1411-Mn-MoS₂ QDs. The T₁-weighted MR imaging was assessed by the in vitro MR cell imaging and in vivo MR imaging. Finally, the long-term toxicity of Mn-MoS₂ QDs was investigated by the hematology and histological analysis.

RESULTS

The prepared Mn-MoS₂ QDs exhibited excellent aqueous property, intense fluorescence, low toxicity, high quantum yield of 41.45% and high T₁ relaxivity of 16.95 mM^-1s^-1. After conjugated with AS1411 aptamer, the AS1411-Mn-MoS₂ QDs could specifically fluorescently label the renal carcinoma cells and present a specific MRI signal enhancement in the tumor region of mice bearing renal carcinoma tumors. Furthermore, Mn-MoS₂ QDs revealed low toxicity to the mice via hematology and histological analysis.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrated the potential of AS1411-Mn-MoS₂ QD as a novel nanoprobe for targeted MR imaging and fluorescence labelling of renal cell carcinoma.

Biomedical Applications of Hyaluronic Acid-Based Nanomaterials in Hyperthermic Cancer Therapy

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a non-sulfated polysaccharide polymer with the properties of biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity. Additionally, HA specifically binds to certain receptors that are over-expressed in cancer cells. To maximize the effect of drug delivery and cancer treatment, diverse types of nanomaterials have been developed. HA-based nanomaterials, including micelles, polymersomes, hydrogels, and nanoparticles, play a critical role in efficient drug delivery and cancer treatment. Hyperthermic cancer treatment using HA-based nanomaterials has attracted attention as an efficient cancer treatment approach. In this paper, the biomedical applications of HA-based nanomaterials in hyperthermic cancer treatment and combined therapies are summarized. HA-based nanomaterials may become a representative platform in hyperthermic cancer treatment.

Inorganic nanomaterials for chemo/photothermal therapy: a promising horizon on effective cancer treatment

During the last few decades, nanotechnology has established many essential applications in the biomedical field and in particular for cancer therapy. Not only can nanodelivery systems address the shortcomings of conventional chemotherapy such as limited stability, non-specific biodistribution and targeting, poor water solubility, low therapeutic indices, and severe toxic side effects, but some of them can also provide simultaneous combination of therapies and diagnostics. Among the various therapies, the combination of chemo- and photothermal therapy (CT-PTT) has demonstrated synergistic therapeutic efficacies with minimal side effects in several preclinical studies. In this regard, inorganic nanostructures have been of special interest for CT-PTT, owing to their high thermal conversion efficiency, application in bio-imaging, versatility, and ease of synthesis and surface modification. In addition to being used as the first type of CT-PTT agents, they also include the most novel CT-PTT systems as the potentials of new inorganic nanomaterials are being more and more discovered. Considering the variety of inorganic nanostructures introduced for CT-PTT applications, enormous effort is needed to perform translational research on the most promising nanomaterials and to comprehensively evaluate the potentials of newly introduced ones in preclinical studies. This review provides an overview of most novel strategies used to employ inorganic nanostructures for cancer CT-PTT as well as cancer imaging and discusses current challenges and future perspectives in this area.

Hyaluronic acid mediated biomineralization of multifunctional ceria nanocomposites as ROS scavengers and tumor photodynamic therapy agents

A novel HA@ceria nanoquantum dots (HA@CQDs) exhibit efficient protective effects against damage induced by ROS. More importantly, aided by H₂O₂, the HA@CQDs-Ce6/H₂O₂ significantly enhanced PDT efficacy for the tumor therapy.

Magnetic Drug Delivery: Where the Field Is Going

Targeted delivery of anticancer drugs is considered to be one of the pillars of cancer treatment as it could allow for a better treatment efficiency and less adverse effects. A promising drug delivery approach is magnetic drug targeting which can be realized if a drug delivery vehicle possesses a strong magnetic moment. Here, we discuss different types of magnetic nanomaterials which can be used as magnetic drug delivery vehicles, approaches to magnetic targeted delivery as well as promising strategies for the enhancement of the imaging-guided delivery and the therapeutic action.