Comparison of micron- and nano-particle transport in the human nasal cavity with a focus on the olfactory region

Exploring the Potential of Artificial Intelligence as a Facilitating Tool for Formulation Development in Fluidized Bed Processor: a Comprehensive Review

This in-depth study looks into how artificial intelligence (AI) could be used to make formulation development easier in fluidized bed processes (FBP). FBP is complex and involves numerous variables, making optimization challenging. Various AI techniques have addressed this challenge, including machine learning, neural networks, genetic algorithms, and fuzzy logic. By integrating AI with experimental design, process modeling, and optimization strategies, intelligent systems for FBP can be developed. The advantages of AI in this context include improved process understanding, reduced time and cost, enhanced product quality, and robust formulation optimization. However, data availability, model interpretability, and regulatory compliance challenges must be addressed. Case studies demonstrate successful applications of AI in decision-making, process outcome prediction, and scale-up. AI can improve efficiency, quality, and cost-effectiveness in significant ways. Still, it is important to think carefully about data quality, how easy it is to understand, and how to follow the rules. Future research should focus on fully harnessing the potential of AI to advance formulation development in FBP.

Nanomedicines for intranasal delivery: understanding the nano-bio interactions at the nasal mucus-mucosal barrier

INTRODUCTION

Intranasal administration is an effective drug delivery routes in modern pharmaceutics. However, unlike other in vivo biological barriers, the nasal mucosal barrier is characterized by high turnover and selective permeability, hindering the diffusion of both particulate drug delivery systems and drug molecules. The in vivo fate of administrated nanomedicines is often significantly affected by nano-biointeractions.

AREAS COVERED

The biological barriers that nanomedicines encounter when administered intranasally are introduced, with a discussion on the factors influencing the interaction between nanomedicines and the mucus layer/mucosal barriers. General design strategies for nanomedicines administered via the nasal route are further proposed. Furthermore, the most common methods to investigate the characteristics and the interactions of nanomedicines when in presence of the mucus layer/mucosal barrier are briefly summarized.

EXPERT OPINION

Detailed investigation of nanomedicine-mucus/mucosal interactions and exploration of their mechanisms provide solutions for designing better intranasal nanomedicines. Designing and applying nanomedicines with mucus interaction properties or non-mucosal interactions should be customized according to the therapeutic need, considering the target of the drug, i.e. brain, lung or nose. Then how to improve the precise targeting efficiency of nanomedicines becomes a difficult task for further research.

Semi-surrogate modelling of droplets evaporation process via XGBoost integrated CFD simulations

The applications of machine learning (ML) based approach are emerging as possible tools to accelerate CFD simulations. This study proposed a semi-surrogate model for CFD with integration of the cutting-edge ML algorithm, eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGB), which enlightened a possible pathway to effectively and efficiently solve and predict those costly but highly repetitive fluid dynamics-related problems. Droplet evaporation, a complex but essential phenomenon in respiratory droplets transport, was studied as the practical case using the proposed model. Droplets evaporation and dynamic size distributions were firstly tracked under various combinations of indoor humidity and temperature using traditional Eulerian-Lagrangian CFD framework, followed by generating several datasets for XGB training. The trained XGB was then used to interpret the evaporated droplets size over time under new combinations of indoor conditions. Outcomes revealed that well-trained XGB-base semi-surrogate model was capable of interpreting complex non-linear relationships between droplets dynamic parameters (diameter and time) and indoor parameters (humidity and temperature). For each specific parameter, the predictive error of well-trained XGB could retain below 5 % and its prediction speed was found nearly 1 million times faster than that of new CFD simulations. Successful applications of XGB in conjunction with CFD demonstrated its great potential on providing rapid and more efficient predictions of complex, costly and repetitive fluid dynamics-related phenomenons (e.g. droplets evaporation). Also, the XGB predicted droplets evaporation data from this study could be further applied as initial conditions into new simulations via the User-defined function (UDF).

Olfactory drug delivery with intranasal sprays after nasal midvault reconstruction

Conductive olfaction and nose to brain drug delivery are important processes that remain limited by inadequate odorant or drug delivery to the olfactory airspace. Primary challenges include anatomic barriers and poor targeting to the olfactory region. This study uses computational fluid dynamics to investigate the effects of nasal midvault surgery on olfactory drug delivery with intranasal sprays. Soft tissue elevation, spreader flaps, and spreader grafts were performed on two fresh cadaveric specimens, using computed tomography for airway reconstruction. Nasal airflow and drug particle transport simulations were performed under these conditions: inhalation rate (15, 30 L/min), spray velocity (1, 5, 10 m/s), spray location (top, bottom, center, medial, lateral), head position (upright, supine, forward, backward), and particle size (1-100 µm). Simulation results were used to calculate drug particle deposition to the olfactory airspaces and bulbs. Total olfactory deposition was < 5% but attained a maximum of 36.33% when sorted by particle size. There was no association between nasal midvault surgery and olfactory deposition. No single parameter or technique demonstrated superior olfactory deposition, but smaller particle size, slower spray velocity, and higher inhalation rate tended to optimize olfactory deposition, providing important implications for future intranasal spray and drug design to target the olfactory airspace.

Challenges in the Development and Application of Organ-on-Chips for Intranasal Drug Delivery Studies

With the growing demand for the development of intranasal (IN) products, such as nasal vaccines, which has been especially highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic, the lack of novel technologies to accurately test the safety and effectiveness of IN products in vitro so that they can be delivered promptly to the market is critically acknowledged. There have been attempts to manufacture anatomically relevant 3D replicas of the human nasal cavity for in vitro IN drug tests, and a couple of organ-on-chip (OoC) models, which mimic some key features of the nasal mucosa, have been proposed. However, these models are still in their infancy, and have not completely recapitulated the critical characteristics of the human nasal mucosa, including its biological interactions with other organs, to provide a reliable platform for preclinical IN drug tests. While the promising potential of OoCs for drug testing and development is being extensively investigated in recent research, the applicability of this technology for IN drug tests has barely been explored. This review aims to highlight the importance of using OoC models for in vitro IN drug tests and their potential applications in IN drug development by covering the background information on the wide usage of IN drugs and their common side effects where some classical examples of each area are pointed out. Specifically, this review focuses on the major challenges of developing advanced OoC technology and discusses the need to mimic the physiological and anatomical features of the nasal cavity and nasal mucosa, the performance of relevant drug safety assays, as well as the fabrication and operational aspects, with the ultimate goal to highlight the much-needed consensus, to converge the effort of the research community in this area of work.

Nanotechnological Advances for Nose to Brain Delivery of Therapeutics to Improve the Parkinson Therapy

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) acts as a highly impermeable barrier, presenting an impediment to the crossing of most classical drugs targeted for neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease (PD). About the nature of drugs and other potential molecules, they impose unavoidable doserestricted limitations eventually leading to the failure of therapy. However, many advancements in formulation technology and modification of delivery approaches have been successful in delivering the drug to the brain in the therapeutic window. The nose to the brain (N2B) drug delivery employing the nanoformulation, is one such emerging delivery approach, overcoming both classical drug formulation and delivery-associated limitations. This latter approach offers increased bioavailability, greater patient acceptance, lesser metabolic degradation of drugs, circumvention of BBB, ample drug loading along with the controlled release of the drugs. In N2B delivery, the intranasal (IN) route carries therapeutics firstly into the nasal cavity followed by the brain through olfactory and trigeminal nerve connections linked with nasal mucosa. The N2B delivery approach is being explored for delivering other biologicals like neuropeptides and mitochondria. Meanwhile, this N2B delivery system is associated with critical challenges consisting of mucociliary clearance, degradation by enzymes, and drug translocations by efflux mechanisms. These challenges finally culminated in the development of suitable surfacemodified nano-carriers and Focused- Ultrasound-Assisted IN as FUS-IN technique which has expanded the horizons of N2B drug delivery. Hence, nanotechnology, in collaboration with advances in the IN route of drug administration, has a diversified approach for treating PD. The present review discusses the physiology and limitation of IN delivery along with current advances in nanocarrier and technical development assisting N2B drug delivery.

Nanoparticle transport and deposition in a heterogeneous human lung airway tree: An efficient one path model for CFD simulations

Understanding nano-particle inhalation in human lung airways helps targeted drug delivery for treating lung diseases. A wide range of numerical models have been developed to analyse nano-particle transport and deposition (TD) in different parts of airways. However, a precise understanding of nano-particle TD in large-scale airways is still unavailable in the literature. This study developed an efficient one-path numerical model for simulating nano-particle TD in large-scale lung airway models. This first-ever one-path numerical approach simulates airflow and nano-particle TD in generations 0-11 of the human lung, accounting for 93% of the whole airway length. The one-path model enables the simulation of particle TD in many generations of airways with an affordable time. The particle TD of 5 nm, 10 nm and 20 nm particles is simulated at inhalation flow rates for two different physical activities: resting and moderate activity. It is found that particle deposition efficiency of 5 nm particles is 28.94% higher than 20 nm particles because of the higher dispersion capacity. It is further proved that the diffusion mechanism dominates the particle TD in generations 0-11. The deposition efficiency decreases with the increase of generation number irrespective of the flow rate and particle size. The effects of the particle size and flow rate on the escaping rate of each generation are opposite to the corresponding effects on the deposition rate. The quantified deposition and escaping rates at generations 0-11 provide valuable guidelines for drug delivery in human lungs.

Targeted drug delivery to the inferior meatus cavity of the nasal airway using a nasal spray device with angled tip

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Nowadays, by advancement in computational tools, Computational Fluid and Particle Dynamics (CFPD) technique can be used more than ever. The main aim of this study is using a nasal spray device with angled tip to deliver drug particles to the inferior meatus cavity for treatment purposes. In the present study, the drug delivery to the lower regions of the nasal cavity will be improved that has been considered less in the literature.

METHODS

For this purpose, a spray with an angled tip was used, and the deposition of sprayed particles was compared with a spray with a straight tip. Based on the objectives presented above, a realistic model of the nasal route, including facial geometry, and paranasal sinuses obtained from a series of Computed tomography (CT) scan images, as well as the geometry of a nasal spray with two types of tip were developed.

RESULTS

It is observed that by using the spray with the straight tip, particles were mainly deposited in the middle and superior regions of the nasal cavity and no particles entered the inferior meatus airway. The results proved that the spray with the angled tip improved the regional deposition percentage in the inferior meatus cavity up to 2.4% of the total sprayed particles and 1 mg drug mass delivered to this region. The majority of these particles had a diameter between 15-55 µm and that could be considered by spray designers to produce more compatible sprays with the targeted region. Also, most particles were deposited near the inferior meatus cavity and so there is a strong chance to be absorbed and delivered to this region.

CONCLUSION

The deposition pattern and particle size contour due to the spray with the angled tip can give sight to the designers and producers of nasal sprays to build more efficient types for better targeted drug delivery purposes. With this spray type, deposited particles were observed in the inferior meatus that never happened with the straight type. Also, the angled tip of the nasal spray shows the benefit of the ease of use for the user.

Nanocarrier Drug Delivery Systems: Characterization, Limitations, Future Perspectives and Implementation of Artificial Intelligence

There has been an increasing demand for the development of nanocarriers targeting multiple diseases with a broad range of properties. Due to their tiny size, giant surface area and feasible targetability, nanocarriers have optimized efficacy, decreased side effects and improved stability over conventional drug dosage forms. There are diverse types of nanocarriers that have been synthesized for drug delivery, including dendrimers, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymersomes, polymer-drug conjugates, polymeric nanoparticles, peptide nanoparticles, micelles, nanoemulsions, nanospheres, nanocapsules, nanoshells, carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles, etc. Several characterization techniques have been proposed and used over the past few decades to control and predict the behavior of nanocarriers both in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we describe some fundamental in vitro, ex vivo, in situ and in vivo characterization methods for most nanocarriers, emphasizing their advantages and limitations, as well as the safety, regulatory and manufacturing aspects that hinder the transfer of nanocarriers from the laboratory to the clinic. Moreover, integration of artificial intelligence with nanotechnology, as well as the advantages and problems of artificial intelligence in the development and optimization of nanocarriers, are also discussed, along with future perspectives.

In Silico Study to Enhance Delivery Efficiency of Charged Nanoscale Nasal Spray Aerosols to the Olfactory Region Using External Magnetic Fields

Various factors and challenges are involved in efficiently delivering drugs using nasal sprays to the olfactory region to treat central nervous system diseases. In this study, computational fluid dynamics was used to simulate nasal drug delivery to (1) examine effects on drug deposition when various external magnetic fields are applied to charged particles, (2) comprehensively study effects of multiple parameters (i.e., particle aerodynamic diameter; injection velocity magnitude, angle, and position; magnetic force strength and direction), and (3) determine how to achieve the optimal delivery efficiency to the olfactory epithelium. The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations governed airflow, with a realistic inhalation waveform implemented at the nostrils. Particle trajectories were modeled using the one-way coupled Euler–Lagrange model. A current-carrying wire generated a magnetic field to apply force on charged particles and direct them to the olfactory region. Once drug particles reached the olfactory region, their diffusion through mucus to the epithelium was calculated analytically. Particle aerodynamic diameter, injection position, and magnetic field strength were found to be interconnected in their effects on delivery efficiency. Specific combinations of these parameters achieved over 65-fold higher drug delivery efficiency compared with uniform injections with no magnetic fields. The insight gained suggests how to integrate these factors to achieve the optimal efficiency.

In Vitro Evaluation of Nasal Aerosol Depositions: An Insight for Direct Nose to Brain Drug Delivery

The nasal cavity is an attractive route for both local and systemic drug delivery and holds great potential for access to the brain via the olfactory region, an area where the blood–brain barrier (BBB) is effectively absent. However, the olfactory region is located at the roof of the nasal cavity and only represents ~5–7% of the epithelial surface area, presenting significant challenges for the deposition of drug molecules for nose to brain drug delivery (NTBDD). Aerosolized particles have the potential to be directed to the olfactory region, but their specific deposition within this area is confounded by a complex combination of factors, which include the properties of the formulation, the delivery device and how it is used, and differences in inter-patient physiology. In this review, an in-depth examination of these different factors is provided in relation to both in vitro and in vivo studies and how advances in the fabrication of nasal cast models and analysis of aerosol deposition can be utilized to predict in vivo outcomes more accurately. The challenges faced in assessing the nasal deposition of aerosolized particles within the paediatric population are specifically considered, representing an unmet need for nasal and NTBDD to treat CNS disorders.