Peptidergic circadian clock circuits in the Madeira cockroach

Synaptic connectome of the Drosophila circadian clock

The circadian clock and its output pathways play a pivotal role in optimizing daily processes. To obtain insights into how diverse rhythmic physiology and behaviors are orchestrated, we have generated a comprehensive connectivity map of an animal circadian clock using the Drosophila FlyWire brain connectome. Intriguingly, we identified additional dorsal clock neurons, thus showing that the Drosophila circadian network contains ~240 instead of 150 neurons. We revealed extensive contralateral synaptic connectivity within the network and discovered novel indirect light input pathways to the clock neurons. We also elucidated pathways via which the clock modulates descending neurons that are known to regulate feeding and reproductive behaviors. Interestingly, we observed sparse monosynaptic connectivity between clock neurons and downstream higher-order brain centers and neurosecretory cells known to regulate behavior and physiology. Therefore, we integrated single-cell transcriptomics and receptor mapping to decipher putative paracrine peptidergic signaling by clock neurons. Our analyses identified additional novel neuropeptides expressed in clock neurons and suggest that peptidergic signaling significantly enriches interconnectivity within the clock network.

The circadian and photoperiodic clock of the pea aphid

The pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, is a paradigmatic photoperiodic species that exhibits a remarkable annual life cycle, which is tightly coupled to the seasonal changes in day length. During spring and summer, characterised by longer days, aphid populations consist exclusively of viviparous females that reproduce parthenogenetically. When autumn comes and the days shorten, aphids switch their reproductive mode and generate males and oviparous sexual females, which mate and produce cold-resistant eggs that overwinter and survive the unfavourable season. While the photoperiodic responses have been well described, the nature of the timing mechanisms which underlie day length discrimination are still not completely understood. Experiments from the 1960's suggested that aphids rely on an 'hourglass' clock measuring the elapsed time during the dark night by accumulating a biochemical factor, which reaches a critical threshold at a certain night length and triggers the switch in reproduction mode. However, the photoperiodic responses of aphids can also be attributed to a strongly dampened circadian clock. Recent studies have uncovered the molecular components and the location of the circadian clock in the brain of the pea aphid and revealed that it is well connected to the neurohormonal system controlling aphid reproduction. We provide an overview of the putative mechanisms of photoperiodic control in aphids, from the photoreceptors involved in this process to the circadian clock and the neuroendocrine system.

Circadian Control of Lipid Metabolism

To ensure optimum health and performance, lipid metabolism needs to be temporally aligned to other body processes and to daily changes in the environment. Central and peripheral circadian clocks and environmental signals such as light provide internal and external time cues to the body. Importantly, each of the key organs involved in insect lipid metabolism contains a molecular clockwork which ticks with a varying degree of autonomy from the central clock in the brain. In this chapter, we review our current knowledge about peripheral clocks in the insect fat body, gut and oenocytes, and light- and circadian-driven diel patterns in lipid metabolites and lipid-related transcripts. In addition, we highlight selected neuroendocrine signaling pathways that are or may be involved in the temporal coordination and control of lipid metabolism.

Neuropeptidergic regulation of insect diapause by the circadian clock

Diapause is an endocrine-mediated strategy used by insects to survive seasons of adverse environmental conditions. Insects living in temperate zones are regularly exposed to such conditions in the form of winter. To survive winter, they must prepare for it long before it arrives. A reliable indicator of impending winter is the shortening of day length. To measure day length, insects need their circadian clock as internal time reference. In this article, I provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on the neuropeptides that link the clock to the diapause inducing hormonal brain centers.

Contribution of membrane-associated oscillators to biological timing at different timescales

Environmental rhythms such as the daily light-dark cycle selected for endogenous clocks. These clocks predict regular environmental changes and provide the basis for well-timed adaptive homeostasis in physiology and behavior of organisms. Endogenous clocks are oscillators that are based on positive feedforward and negative feedback loops. They generate stable rhythms even under constant conditions. Since even weak interactions between oscillators allow for autonomous synchronization, coupling/synchronization of oscillators provides the basis of self-organized physiological timing. Amongst the most thoroughly researched clocks are the endogenous circadian clock neurons in mammals and insects. They comprise nuclear clockworks of transcriptional/translational feedback loops (TTFL) that generate ∼24 h rhythms in clock gene expression entrained to the environmental day-night cycle. It is generally assumed that this TTFL clockwork drives all circadian oscillations within and between clock cells, being the basis of any circadian rhythm in physiology and behavior of organisms. Instead of the current gene-based hierarchical clock model we provide here a systems view of timing. We suggest that a coupled system of autonomous TTFL and posttranslational feedback loop (PTFL) oscillators/clocks that run at multiple timescales governs adaptive, dynamic homeostasis of physiology and behavior. We focus on mammalian and insect neurons as endogenous oscillators at multiple timescales. We suggest that neuronal plasma membrane-associated signalosomes constitute specific autonomous PTFL clocks that generate localized but interlinked oscillations of membrane potential and intracellular messengers with specific endogenous frequencies. In each clock neuron multiscale interactions of TTFL and PTFL oscillators/clocks form a temporally structured oscillatory network with a common complex frequency-band comprising superimposed multiscale oscillations. Coupling between oscillator/clock neurons provides the next level of complexity of an oscillatory network. This systemic dynamic network of molecular and cellular oscillators/clocks is suggested to form the basis of any physiological homeostasis that cycles through dynamic homeostatic setpoints with a characteristic frequency-band as hallmark. We propose that mechanisms of homeostatic plasticity maintain the stability of these dynamic setpoints, whereas Hebbian plasticity enables switching between setpoints via coupling factors, like biogenic amines and/or neuropeptides. They reprogram the network to a new common frequency, a new dynamic setpoint. Our novel hypothesis is up for experimental challenge.

Pigment-dispersing factor is present in circadian clock neurons of pea aphids and may mediate photoperiodic signalling to insulin-producing cells

The neuropeptide pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) plays a pivotal role in the circadian clock of most Ecdysozoa and is additionally involved in the timing of seasonal responses of several photoperiodic species. The pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, is a paradigmatic photoperiodic species with an annual life cycle tightly coupled to the seasonal changes in day length. Nevertheless, PDF could not be identified in A. pisum so far. In the present study, we identified a PDF-coding gene that has undergone significant changes in the otherwise highly conserved insect C-terminal amino acid sequence. A newly generated aphid-specific PDF antibody stained four neurons in each hemisphere of the aphid brain that co-express the clock protein Period and have projections to the pars lateralis that are highly plastic and change their appearance in a daily and seasonal manner, resembling those of the fruit fly PDF neurons. Most intriguingly, the PDF terminals overlap with dendrites of the insulin-like peptide (ILP) positive neurosecretory cells in the pars intercerebralis and with putative terminals of Cryptochrome (CRY) positive clock neurons. Since ILP has been previously shown to be crucial for seasonal adaptations and CRY might serve as a circadian photoreceptor vital for measuring day length, our results suggest that PDF plays a critical role in aphid seasonal timing.

3D-atlas of the brain of the cockroach Rhyparobia maderae

The Madeira cockroach Rhyparobia maderae is a nocturnal insect and a prominent model organism for the study of circadian rhythms. Its master circadian clock, controlling circadian locomotor activity and sleep-wake cycles, is located in the accessory medulla of the optic lobe. For a better understanding of brain regions controlled by the circadian clock and brain organization of this insect in general, we created a three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of all neuropils of the cerebral ganglia based on anti-synapsin and anti-γ-aminobutyric acid immunolabeling of whole mount brains. Forty-nine major neuropils were identified and three-dimensionally reconstructed. Single-cell dye fills complement the data and provide evidence for distinct subdivisions of certain brain areas. Most neuropils defined in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster could be distinguished in the cockroach as well. However, some neuropils identified in the fruit fly do not exist as distinct entities in the cockroach while others are lacking in the fruit fly. In addition to neuropils, major fiber systems, tracts, and commissures were reconstructed and served as important landmarks separating brain areas. Being a nocturnal insect, R. maderae is an important new species to the growing collection of 3D insect brain atlases and only the second hemimetabolous insect, for which a detailed 3D brain atlas is available. This atlas will be highly valuable for an evolutionary comparison of insect brain organization and will greatly facilitate addressing brain areas that are supervised by the circadian clock.

Morphology and synaptic connections of pigment-dispersing factor-immunoreactive neurons projecting to the lateral protocerebrum in the large black chafer, Holotrichia parallela

Pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) is a well-known output neuropeptide modulator of circadian pacemakers in insects. Here, we investigated PDF-immunoreactive (ir) neurons in the brain of the large black chafer Holotrichia parallela to search for circadian neural components, which are potentially involved in its circabidian rhythm. PDF-ir cells were exclusively detected near the accessory medulla (AME) as a cluster of ∼ 100 cells with almost homogeneous size. No other cells exhibited immunoreactivity. The PDF-ir cells send beaded fibers into the proximal half of the AME and ventral elongation in an anterior region between the medulla (ME) and lobula (LO). Neither the lamina, ME, LO, nor lobula plate receives PDF-ir fibers. Primary axons derived from the PDF-ir cells extend toward the contralateral hemisphere through the dorsolateral protocerebrum anterior to the calyx to connect the bilateral AME. The axons form varicose outgrowths exclusively in the lateral protocerebrum. Double labeling with antisynapsin revealed partial overlaps between PDF-ir varicosities and synapsin-ir puncta. Thus, it was assumed that the PDF-ir fibers form output synapses there. To verify this, we investigated the ultrastructure of the PDF-ir varicosities in the lateral protocerebrum by preembedding immunoelectron microscopy. The PDF-ir profiles contain small clear synaptic vesicles as well as both PDF-positive and PDF-negative dense-core vesicles, and the profiles form output synapses upon unknown profiles and receive synapses from other PDF-ir profiles. PDF neurons near the AME are considered to be prominent circadian pacemakers in the cockroach and flies. Their possible function in the circabidian rhythm was discussed based on these anatomical insights.

The Neuronal Circuit of the Dorsal Circadian Clock Neurons in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila’s dorsal clock neurons (DNs) consist of four clusters (DN_1as, DN_1ps, DN₂s, and DN₃s) that largely differ in size. While the DN_1as and the DN₂s encompass only two neurons, the DN_1ps consist of ∼15 neurons, and the DN₃s comprise ∼40 neurons per brain hemisphere. In comparison to the well-characterized lateral clock neurons (LNs), the neuroanatomy and function of the DNs are still not clear. Over the past decade, numerous studies have addressed their role in the fly’s circadian system, leading to several sometimes divergent results. Nonetheless, these studies agreed that the DNs are important to fine-tune activity under light and temperature cycles and play essential roles in linking the output from the LNs to downstream neurons that control sleep and metabolism. Here, we used the Flybow system, specific split-GAL4 lines, trans-Tango, and the recently published fly connectome (called hemibrain) to describe the morphology of the DNs in greater detail, including their synaptic connections to other clock and non-clock neurons. We show that some DN groups are largely heterogenous. While certain DNs are strongly connected with the LNs, others are mainly output neurons that signal to circuits downstream of the clock. Among the latter are mushroom body neurons, central complex neurons, tubercle bulb neurons, neurosecretory cells in the pars intercerebralis, and other still unidentified partners. This heterogeneity of the DNs may explain some of the conflicting results previously found about their functionality. Most importantly, we identify two putative novel communication centers of the clock network: one fiber bundle in the superior lateral protocerebrum running toward the anterior optic tubercle and one fiber hub in the posterior lateral protocerebrum. Both are invaded by several DNs and LNs and might play an instrumental role in the clock network.

Pigment-dispersing factor is involved in photoperiodic control of reproduction in the brown-winged green bug, Plautia stali

Animals in temperate regions breed in the appropriate season by sensing seasonal changes through photoperiodism. Many studies suggest the involvement of a circadian clock system in the photoperiodic regulation of reproduction. Pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) is a known brain neuropeptide involved in the circadian control in various insects. Here, we investigated the localization and projection of PDF neurons in the brain and their involvement in the photoperiodic control of reproduction in the females of the brown-winged green bug, Plautia stali. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed a dense cluster of PDF-immunoreactive cells localized in the proximal medulla of the optic lobe, which corresponded to the cluster known as PDFMe cells. PDF-immunoreactive cells projected their fibers to the lamina through the medulla surface. PDF-immunoreactive fibers were also found in the protocerebrum and seemed to connect both PDF cell bodies in the optic lobes. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of pdf inhibited oviposition arrest induced by the transfer from long- to short-day conditions. Additionally, the knockdown of pdf delayed oviposition onset after the change from short- to long-day conditions. In conclusion, the study results indicate that PDF is locally expressed in a cell cluster at the proximal medulla and involved in the photoperiodic control of reproduction in P. stali females.

The lateral posterior clock neurons (LPN) of Drosophila melanogaster express three neuropeptides and have multiple connections within the circadian clock network and beyond

Drosophila's lateral posterior neurons (LPNs) belong to a small group of circadian clock neurons that is so far not characterized in detail. Thanks to a new highly specific split-Gal4 line, here we describe LPNs' morphology in fine detail, their synaptic connections, daily bimodal expression of neuropeptides, and propose a putative role of this cluster in controlling daily activity and sleep patterns. We found that the three LPNs are heterogeneous. Two of the neurons with similar morphology arborize in the superior medial and lateral protocerebrum and most likely promote sleep. One unique, possibly wakefulness-promoting, neuron with wider arborizations extends from the superior lateral protocerebrum toward the anterior optic tubercle. Both LPN types exhibit manifold connections with the other circadian clock neurons, especially with those that control the flies' morning and evening activity (M- and E-neurons, respectively). In addition, they form synaptic connections with neurons of the mushroom bodies, the fan-shaped body, and with many additional still unidentified neurons. We found that both LPN types rhythmically express three neuropeptides, Allostatin A, Allostatin C, and Diuretic Hormone 31 with maxima in the morning and the evening. The three LPN neuropeptides may, furthermore, signal to the insect hormonal center in the pars intercerebralis and contribute to rhythmic modulation of metabolism, feeding, and reproduction. We discuss our findings in the light of anatomical details gained by the recently published hemibrain of a single female fly on the electron microscopic level and of previous functional studies concerning the LPN. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The pigment-dispersing factor neuronal network systematically grows in developing honey bees

The neuropeptide pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) plays a prominent role in the circadian clock of many insects including honey bees. In the honey bee brain, PDF is expressed in about 15 clock neurons per hemisphere that lie between the central brain and the optic lobes. As in other insects, the bee PDF neurons form wide arborizations in the brain, but certain differences are evident. For example, they arborize only sparsely in the accessory medulla (AME), which serves as important communication center of the circadian clock in cockroaches and flies. Furthermore, all bee PDF neurons cluster together, which makes it impossible to distinguish individual projections. Here, we investigated the developing bee PDF network and found that the first three PDF neurons arise in the third larval instar and form a dense network of varicose fibers at the base of the developing medulla that strongly resembles the AME of hemimetabolous insects. In addition, they send faint fibers toward the lateral superior protocerebrum. In last larval instar, PDF cells with larger somata appear and send fibers toward the distal medulla and the medial protocerebrum. In the dorsal part of the medulla serpentine layer, a small PDF knot evolves from which PDF fibers extend ventrally. This knot disappears during metamorphosis and the varicose arborizations in the putative AME become fainter. Instead, a new strongly stained PDF fiber hub appears in front of the lobula. Simultaneously, the number of PDF neurons increases and the PDF neuronal network in the brain gets continuously more complex.

Distribution and daily oscillation of GABA in the circadian system of the cockroach Rhyparobia maderae

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in nervous systems promoting sleep in both mammals and insects. In the Madeira cockroach, sleep-wake cycles are controlled by a circadian clock network in the brain's optic lobes, centered in the accessory medulla (AME) with its innervating pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) expressing clock neurons at the anterior-ventral rim of the medulla. GABA is present in cell clusters that innervate different circuits of the cockroach's AME clock, without colocalizing in PDF clock neurons. Physiological, immunohistochemical, and behavioral assays provided evidence for a role of GABA in light entrainment, possibly via the distal tract that connects the AME's glomeruli to the medulla. Furthermore, GABA was implemented in clock outputs to multiple effector systems in optic lobe and midbrain. Here, GABAergic brain circuits were analyzed further, focusing on the circadian system in search for sleep/wake controlling brain circuits. All GABA-immunoreactive neurons of the cockroach brain were also stained with an antiserum against the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase. We found strong overlap of the distribution of GABA-immunoreactive networks with PDF clock networks in optic lobes and midbrain. Neurons in five of the six soma groups that innervate the clock exhibited GABA immunoreactivity. The intensity of GABA immunoreactivity in the distal tract showed daily fluctuations with maximum staining intensity in the middle of the day and weakest staining at the end of the day. Quantification via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, likewise, showed higher GABA levels in the optic lobe during the inactivity phase of the cockroach during the day and lower levels during its activity phase at dusk. Our data further support the hypothesis that light- and PDF-dependently the circadian clock network of the cockroach controls GABA levels and thereby promotes sleep during the day.

Antibodies Against the Clock Proteins Period and Cryptochrome Reveal the Neuronal Organization of the Circadian Clock in the Pea Aphid

Circadian clocks prepare the organism to cyclic environmental changes in light, temperature, or food availability. Here, we characterized the master clock in the brain of a strongly photoperiodic insect, the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum, immunohistochemically with antibodies against A. pisum Period (PER), Drosophila melanogaster Cryptochrome (CRY1), and crab Pigment-Dispersing Hormone (PDH). The latter antibody detects all so far known PDHs and PDFs (Pigment-Dispersing Factors), which play a dominant role in the circadian system of many arthropods. We found that, under long days, PER and CRY are expressed in a rhythmic manner in three regions of the brain: the dorsal and lateral protocerebrum and the lamina. No staining was detected with anti-PDH, suggesting that aphids lack PDF. All the CRY1-positive cells co-expressed PER and showed daily PER/CRY1 oscillations of high amplitude, while the PER oscillations of the CRY1-negative PER neurons were of considerable lower amplitude. The CRY1 oscillations were highly synchronous in all neurons, suggesting that aphid CRY1, similarly to Drosophila CRY1, is light sensitive and its oscillations are synchronized by light-dark cycles. Nevertheless, in contrast to Drosophila CRY1, aphid CRY1 was not degraded by light, but steadily increased during the day and decreased during the night. PER was always located in the nuclei of the clock neurons, while CRY was predominantly cytoplasmic and revealed the projections of the PER/CRY1-positive neurons. We traced the PER/CRY1-positive neurons through the aphid protocerebrum discovering striking similarities with the circadian clock of D. melanogaster: The CRY1 fibers innervate the dorsal and lateral protocerebrum and putatively connect the different PER-positive neurons with each other. They also run toward the pars intercerebralis, which controls hormone release via the neurohemal organ, the corpora cardiaca. In contrast to Drosophila, the CRY1-positive fibers additionally travel directly toward the corpora cardiaca and the close-by endocrine gland, corpora allata. This suggests a direct link between the circadian clock and the photoperiodic control of hormone release that can be studied in the future.

Mapping PERIOD-immunoreactive cells with neurons relevant to photoperiodic response in the bean bug Riptortus pedestris

Circadian clock genes are involved in photoperiodic responses in many insects; however, there is a lack of understanding in the neural pathways that process photoperiodic information involving circadian clock cells. PERIOD-immunohistochemistry was conducted in the bean bug Riptortus pedestris to localise clock cells and their anatomical relationship with other brain neurons necessary for the photoperiodic response. PERIOD-immunoreactive cells were found in the six brain regions. In the optic lobe, two cell groups called lateral neuron lateral (LNl) and lateral neuron medial (LNm), were labelled anterior medial to the medulla and lobula, respectively. In the protocerebrum of the central brain, dorsal neuron (Prd), posterior neuron (Prp), and antennal lobe posterior neuron (pAL) were found. In the deutocerebrum, antennal lobe local neurons (ALln) were detected. Double immunohistochemistry revealed that PERIOD and serotonin were not co-localised. Furthermore, pigment-dispersing factor-immunoreactive neurons and anterior lobula neurons essential for R. pedestris photoperiodic response were not PERIOD immunopositive. LNl cells were located in the vicinity of the pigment-dispersing factor immunoreactive cells at the anterior base of the medulla. LNm cells were located close to the somata of the anterior lobula neurons. Fibres from the anterior lobula neurons and pigment-dispersing factor-immunoreactive neurons had contacts at the anterior base of the medulla. It is suggested that LNl cells work as clock cells involved in the photoperiodic response and the region at the medulla anterior base serves as a hub to receive photic and clock information relevant to the photoperiodic clock in R. pedestris.

Leucokinins: Multifunctional Neuropeptides and Hormones in Insects and Other Invertebrates

Leucokinins (LKs) constitute a neuropeptide family first discovered in a cockroach and later identified in numerous insects and several other invertebrates. The LK receptors are only distantly related to other known receptors. Among insects, there are many examples of species where genes encoding LKs and their receptors are absent. Furthermore, genomics has revealed that LK signaling is lacking in several of the invertebrate phyla and in vertebrates. In insects, the number and complexity of LK-expressing neurons vary, from the simple pattern in the Drosophila larva where the entire CNS has 20 neurons of 3 main types, to cockroaches with about 250 neurons of many different types. Common to all studied insects is the presence or 1-3 pairs of LK-expressing neurosecretory cells in each abdominal neuromere of the ventral nerve cord, that, at least in some insects, regulate secretion in Malpighian tubules. This review summarizes the diverse functional roles of LK signaling in insects, as well as other arthropods and mollusks. These functions include regulation of ion and water homeostasis, feeding, sleep-metabolism interactions, state-dependent memory formation, as well as modulation of gustatory sensitivity and nociception. Other functions are implied by the neuronal distribution of LK, but remain to be investigated.

Anatomical and ultrastructural analysis of the posterior optic tubercle in the locust Schistocerca gregaria

Locusts, like other insects, partly rely on a sun compass mechanism for spatial orientation during seasonal migrations. To serve as a useful guiding cue throughout the day, however, the sun's apparent movement has to be accounted for. In locusts, a neural pathway from the accessory medulla, the circadian pacemaker, via the posterior optic tubercle, to the protocerebral bridge, part of the internal sky compass, has been proposed to mediate the required time compensation. Toward a better understanding of neural connectivities within the posterior optic tubercle, we investigated this neuropil using light and electron microscopy. Based on vesicle content, four types of synaptic profile were distinguished within the posterior optic tubercle. Immunogold labeling showed that pigment-dispersing hormone immunoreactive neurons from the accessory medulla, containing large dense-core vesicles, have presynaptic terminals in the posterior optic tubercle. Ultrastructural examination of two Neurobiotin-injected tangential neurons of the protocerebral bridge revealed that these neurons are postsynaptic in the posterior optic tubercle. Our data, therefore, support a role of the posterior optic tubercles in mediating circadian input to the insect sky compass.

Neither per, nor tim1, nor cry2 alone are essential components of the molecular circadian clockwork in the Madeira cockroach

Circadian clocks control rhythms in physiology and behavior entrained to 24 h light-dark cycles. Despite of conserved general schemes, molecular circadian clockworks differ between insect species. With RNA interference (RNAi) we examined an ancient circadian clockwork in a basic insect, the hemimetabolous Madeira cockroach Rhyparobia maderae. With injections of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) of cockroach period (Rm´per), timeless 1 (Rm´tim1), or cryptochrome 2 (Rm´cry2) we searched for essential components of the clock´s core negative feedback loop. Single injections of dsRNA of each clock gene into adult cockroaches successfully and permanently knocked down respective mRNA levels within ~two weeks deleting daytime-dependent mRNA rhythms for Rm´per and Rm´cry2. Rm´perRNAi or Rm´cry2RNAi affected total mRNA levels of both genes, while Rm´tim1 transcription was independent of both, also keeping rhythmic expression. Unexpectedly, circadian locomotor activity of most cockroaches remained rhythmic for each clock gene knockdown employed. It expressed weakened rhythms and unchanged periods for Rm´perRNAi and shorter periods for Rm´tim1RNAi and Rm´cry2RNAi.As a hypothesis of the cockroach´s molecular clockwork, a basic network of switched differential equations was developed to model the oscillatory behavior of clock cells expressing respective clock genes. Data were consistent with two synchronized main groups of coupled oscillator cells, a leading (morning) oscillator, or a lagging (evening) oscillator that couple via mutual inhibition. The morning oscillators express shorter, the evening oscillators longer endogenous periods based on core feedback loops with either PER, TIM1, or CRY2/PER complexes as dominant negative feedback of the clockwork. We hypothesize that dominant morning oscillator cells with shorter periods express PER, but not CRY2, or TIM1 as suppressor of clock gene expression, while two groups of evening oscillator cells with longer periods either comprise TIM1 or CRY2/PER suppressing complexes. Modelling suggests that there is an additional negative feedback next to Rm´PER in cockroach morning oscillator cells.

Function and Distribution of the Wamide Neuropeptide Superfamily in Metazoans

The Wamide neuropeptide superfamily is of interest due to its distinctive functions in regulating life cycle transitions, metamorphic hormone signaling, and several aspects of digestive system function, from gut muscle contraction to satiety and fat storage. Due to variation among researchers in naming conventions, a global view of Wamide signaling in animals in terms of conservation or diversification of function is currently lacking. Here, I summarize the phylogenetic distribution of Wamide neuropeptides based on current data and describe recent findings in the areas of Wamide receptors and biological functions. Common trends that emerge across Cnidarians and protostomes are the presence of multiple Wamide receptors within a single organism, and the fact that Wamide signaling likely functions across an extensive variety of biological systems, including visual, circadian, and reproductive systems. Important areas of focus for future research are the further identification of Wamide-receptor pairs, confirmation of the phylogenetic distribution of Wamides through largescale sequencing and mass spectrometry, and assignment of different functions to specific subsets of Wamide-expressing neurons. More extensive study of Wamide signaling throughout larval development in a greater number of phyla is also important in order to understand the role of Wamides in hormonal regulation. Defining the evolution and function of neuropeptide signaling in animal nervous systems will benefit from an increased understanding of Wamide function and signaling mechanisms in a wider variety of organisms, beyond the traditional model systems.

Candidates for photic entrainment pathways to the circadian clock via optic lobe neuropils in the Madeira cockroach

The compound eye of cockroaches is obligatory for entrainment of the Madeira cockroach's circadian clock, but the cellular nature of its entrainment pathways is enigmatic. Employing multiple-label immunocytochemistry, histochemistry, and backfills, we searched for photic entrainment pathways to the accessory medulla (AME), the circadian clock of the Madeira cockroach. We wanted to know whether photoreceptor terminals could directly contact pigment-dispersing factor-immunoreactive (PDF-ir) circadian pacemaker neurons with somata in the lamina (PDFLAs) or somata next to the AME (PDFMEs). Short green-sensitive photoreceptor neurons of the compound eye terminated in lamina layers LA1 and LA2, adjacent to PDFLAs and PDFMEs that branched in LA3. Long UV-sensitive compound eye photoreceptor neurons terminated in medulla layer ME2 without direct contact to ipsilateral PDFMEs that arborized in ME4. Multiple neuropeptide-ir interneurons branched in ME4, connecting the AME to ME2. Before, extraocular photoreceptors of the lamina organ were suggested to send terminals to accessory laminae. There, they overlapped with PDFLAs that mostly colocalized PDF, FMRFamide, and 5-HT immunoreactivities, and with terminals of ipsi- and contralateral PDFMEs. We hypothesize that during the day cholinergic activation of the largest PDFME via lamina organ photoreceptors maintains PDF release orchestrating phases of sleep-wake cycles. As ipsilateral PDFMEs express excitatory and contralateral PDFMEs inhibitory PDF autoreceptors, diurnal PDF release keeps both PDF-dependent clock circuits in antiphase. Future experiments will test whether ipsilateral PDFMEs are sleep-promoting morning cells, while contralateral PDFMEs are activity-promoting evening cells, maintaining stable antiphase via the largest PDFME entrained by extraocular photoreceptors of the lamina organ.

Analysis of Pigment-Dispersing Factor Neuropeptides and Their Receptor in a Velvet Worm

Pigment-dispersing factor neuropeptides (PDFs) occur in a wide range of protostomes including ecdysozoans (= molting animals) and lophotrochozoans (mollusks, annelids, flatworms, and allies). Studies in insects revealed that PDFs play a role as coupling factors of circadian pacemaker cells, thereby controlling rest-activity rhythms. While the last common ancestor of protostomes most likely possessed only one pdf gene, two pdf homologs, pdf-I and pdf-II, might have been present in the last common ancestors of Ecdysozoa and Panarthropoda (Onychophora + Tardigrada + Arthropoda). One of these homologs, however, was subsequently lost in the tardigrade and arthropod lineages followed by independent duplications of pdf-I in tardigrades and decapod crustaceans. Due to the ancestral set of two pdf genes, the study of PDFs and their receptor (PDFR) in Onychophora might reveal the ancient organization and function of the PDF/PDFR system in panarthropods. Therefore, we deorphanized the PDF receptor and generated specific antibodies to localize the two PDF peptides and their receptor in the onychophoran Euperipatoides rowelli. We further conducted bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) experiments on cultured human cells (HEK293T) using an Epac-based sensor (Epac-L) to examine cAMP responses in transfected cells and to reveal potential differences in the interaction of PDF-I and PDF-II with PDFR from E. rowelli. These data show that PDF-II has a tenfold higher potency than PDF-I as an activating ligand. Double immunolabeling revealed that both peptides are co-expressed in E. rowelli but their respective levels of expression differ between specific cells: some neurons express the same amount of both peptides, while others exhibit higher levels of either PDF-I or PDF-II. The detection of the onychophoran PDF receptor in cells that additionally express the two PDF peptides suggests autoreception, whereas spatial separation of PDFR- and PDF-expressing cells supports hormonal release of PDF into the hemolymph. This suggests a dual role of PDF peptides-as hormones and as neurotransmitters/neuromodulators-in Onychophora.

Light input pathways to the circadian clock of insects with an emphasis on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster

Light is the most important Zeitgeber for entraining animal activity rhythms to the 24-h day. In all animals, the eyes are the main visual organs that are not only responsible for motion and colour (image) vision, but also transfer light information to the circadian clock in the brain. The way in which light entrains the circadian clock appears, however, variable in different species. As do vertebrates, insects possess extraretinal photoreceptors in addition to their eyes (and ocelli) that are sometimes located close to (underneath) the eyes, but sometimes even in the central brain. These extraretinal photoreceptors contribute to entrainment of their circadian clocks to different degrees. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is special, because it expresses the blue light-sensitive cryptochrome (CRY) directly in its circadian clock neurons, and CRY is usually regarded as the fly’s main circadian photoreceptor. Nevertheless, recent studies show that the retinal and extraretinal eyes transfer light information to almost every clock neuron and that the eyes are similarly important for entraining the fly’s activity rhythm as in other insects, or more generally spoken in other animals. Here, I compare the light input pathways between selected insect species with a focus on Drosophila’s special case.

Beyond spikes: Multiscale computational analysis of in vivo long-term recordings in the cockroach circadian clock

The circadian clock of the nocturnal Madeira cockroach is located in the accessory medulla, a small nonretinotopic neuropil in the brain's visual system. The clock comprises about 240 neurons that control rhythms in physiology and behavior such as sleep-wake cycles. The clock neurons contain an abundant number of partly colocalized neuropeptides, among them pigment-dispersing factor (PDF), the insects' most important circadian coupling signal that controls sleep-wake rhythms. We performed long-term loose-patch clamp recordings under 12:12-hr light-dark cycles in the cockroach clock in vivo. A wide range of timescales, from milliseconds to seconds, were found in spike and field potential patterns. We developed a framework of wavelet transform-based methods to detect these multiscale electrical events. We analyzed frequencies and patterns of events with interesting dynamic features, such as mixed-mode oscillations reminiscent of sharp-wave ripples. Oscillations in the beta/gamma frequency range (20-40 Hz) were observed to rise at dawn, when PDF is released, peaking just before the onset of locomotor activity of the nocturnal cockroach. We expect that in vivo electrophysiological recordings combined with neuropeptide/antagonist applications and behavioral analysis will determine whether specific patterns of electrical activity recorded in the network of the cockroach circadian clock are causally related to neuropeptide-dependent control of behavior.

Neuropeptide- and serotonin- cells in the brain of Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera) associated with the circadian clock

The neuronal pathways of the circadian clock in the brain of R. prolixus have been described in detail previously, but there is no information concerning the cells or their pathways which relay either inputs to the clock (e.g. for light entrainment), or outputs from it to driven rhythms. Here, we employ antisera to three neuropeptides (type A allatostatin-7, crustacean cardioactive peptide and FMRFamide), and serotonin in confocal laser scanning immunohistochemistry to analyze the distribution of cell bodies and their projections in relation to the principle circadian clock cells (lateral cells, LNs) for all four neuron types. LNs are revealed following labelling with anti- pigment dispersing factor in double labelled preparations. Regions of potential communication between ramifications of the LNs and each of the four other neuron types is described (identified by close superposition of their neurites in various brain regions), as is their detailed projections within the brain. Neuromodulation is sometimes suggested by close, but not intimate, proximity of varicosities of neurites. We infer that some neuron types comprise input pathways to the LNs, some are outputs to neuroendocrine or behavioral rhythms, and others participate in both input and output pathways, sometimes by the same neuron type but in different locations. For example, one retinula cell in each ommatidium is immunoreactive for allatostatin A; its axon projects to the medulla making superpositions with LNs, as do serotonin cells in the optic lobe, indicating roles of both neuron types in light input (entrainment) to the clock. But in other brain areas, these same types appear to mediate outputs from the clock. The accessory medulla has been widely reported as the principle center of integration in other insects; but we found sparse evidence of this in R. prolixus as it contains few neurites other than those from the clock cells. Rather, the importance of neural pathways involving the medulla and the superior protocerebrum is emphasized. We conclude that there is a vast and complex web of interactions in the brain with the LNs, which potentially receive multiple pathways of inputs and outputs that could drive rhythmicity in a multitude of downstream cells, rendering a host of output pathways rhythmic, notably hormone release from neurosecretory cells and behaviors.

Pigment-Dispersing Factor-expressing neurons convey circadian information in the honey bee brain

Pigment-Dispersing Factor (PDF) is an important neuropeptide in the brain circadian network of Drosophila and other insects, but its role in bees in which the circadian clock influences complex behaviour is not well understood. We combined high-resolution neuroanatomical characterizations, quantification of PDF levels over the day and brain injections of synthetic PDF peptide to study the role of PDF in the honey bee Apis mellifera We show that PDF co-localizes with the clock protein Period (PER) in a cluster of laterally located neurons and that the widespread arborizations of these PER/PDF neurons are in close vicinity to other PER-positive cells (neurons and glia). PDF-immunostaining intensity oscillates in a diurnal and circadian manner with possible influences for age or worker task on synchrony of oscillations in different brain areas. Finally, PDF injection into the area between optic lobes and the central brain at the end of the subjective day produced a consistent trend of phase-delayed circadian rhythms in locomotor activity. Altogether, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that PDF is a neuromodulator that conveys circadian information from pacemaker cells to brain centres involved in diverse functions including locomotion, time memory and sun-compass orientation.

GABA- and serotonin-expressing neurons take part in inhibitory as well as excitatory input pathways to the circadian clock of the Madeira cockroach Rhyparobia maderae

In the Madeira cockroach, pigment-dispersing factor-immunoreactive (PDF-ir) neurons innervating the circadian clock, the accessory medulla (AME) in the brain's optic lobes, control circadian behaviour. Circadian activity rhythms are entrained to daily light-dark cycles only by compound eye photoreceptors terminating in the lamina and medulla. Still, it is unknown which neurons connect the photoreceptors to the clock to allow for light entrainment. Here, we characterized by multiple-label immunocytochemistry the serotonin (5-HT)-ir anterior fibre fan and GABA-ir pathways connecting the AME- and optic lobe neuropils. Colocalization of 5-HT with PDF was confirmed in PDF-ir lamina neurons (PDFLAs). Double-labelled fibres were traced to the AME originating from colabelled PDFLAs branching in accessory laminae and proximal lamina. The newly discovered GABA-ir medial layer fibre tract connected the AME to the medulla's medial layer fibre system, and the distal tract fibres connected the AME to the medulla. With Ca²⁺ imaging on primary cell cultures of the AME and with loose-patch-clamp recordings in vivo, we showed that both neurotransmitters either excite or inhibit AME clock neurons. Because we found no colocalization of GABA and 5-HT in any optic lobe neuron, GABA- and 5-HT neurons form separate clock input circuits. Among others, both pathways converged also on AME neurons that coexpressed mostly inhibitory GABA- and excitatory 5-HT receptors. Our physiological and immunocytochemical studies demonstrate that GABA- and 5-HT-immunoreactive neurons constitute parallel excitatory or inhibitory pathways connecting the circadian clock either to the lamina or medulla where photic information from the compound eye is processed.

Sleep in Insects

Sleep is essential for proper brain function in mammals and insects. During sleep, animals are disconnected from the external world; they show high arousal thresholds and changed brain activity. Sleep deprivation results in a sleep rebound. Research using the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has helped us understand the genetic and neuronal control of sleep. Genes involved in sleep control code for ion channels, factors influencing neurotransmission and neuromodulation, and proteins involved in the circadian clock. The neurotransmitters/neuromodulators involved in sleep control are GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, and several neuropeptides. Sleep is controlled by the interplay between sleep homeostasis and the circadian clock. Putative sleep-wake centers are located in higher-order brain centers that are indirectly connected to the circadian clock network. The primary function of sleep appears to be the downscaling of synapses that have been built up during wakefulness. Thus, brain homeostasis is maintained and learning and memory are assured.

Sensitivity to Pigment-Dispersing Factor (PDF) Is Cell-Type Specific among PDF-Expressing Circadian Clock Neurons in the Madeira Cockroach

Transplantation studies have pinpointed the circadian clock of the Madeira cockroach to the accessory medulla (AME) of the brain's optic lobes. The AME is innervated by approximately 240 adjacent neuropeptidergic neurons, including 12 pigment-dispersing factor (PDF)-expressing neurons anterior to the AME (aPDFMEs). Four of the aPDFMEs project contralaterally, controlling locomotor activity rhythms of the night-active cockroach. The present in vitro Ca²⁺ imaging analysis focuses on contralaterally projecting AME neurons and their responses to PDF, GABA, and acetylcholine (ACh). First, rhodamine-dextran backfills from the contralateral optic stalk identified contralaterally projecting AME neurons, which were then dispersed in primary cell cultures. After characterization of PDF, GABA, and ACh responses, PDF immunocytochemistry identified ipsilaterally and contralaterally projecting PDFMEs. All PDF-sensitive clock neurons, PDF-immunoreactive clock neurons, and the majority of ipsilaterally and contralaterally projecting cells were excited by ACh. GABA inhibited all PDF-expressing clock neurons, and about half of other ipsilaterally projecting and most contralaterally projecting clock neurons. For the first time, we identified PDF autoreceptors in PDF-secreting cockroach circadian pacemakers. The medium-sized aPDFMEs and all other contralaterally projecting PDF-sensitive clock cells were inhibited by PDF. The ipsilaterally remaining small PDF-sensitive clock cells were activated by PDF. Only the largest aPDFME did not express PDF autoreceptors. We hypothesize that opposing PDF signaling generates 2 different ensembles of clock cells with antiphasic activity, regulating and maintaining a constant phase relationship between rest and activity cycles of the night-active cockroach.

Anatomy of the lobula complex in the brain of the praying mantis compared to the lobula complexes of the locust and cockroach

The praying mantis is an insect which relies on vision for capturing prey, avoiding being eaten and for spatial orientation. It is well known for its ability to use stereopsis for estimating the distance of objects. The neuronal substrate mediating visually driven behaviors, however, is not very well investigated. To provide a basis for future functional studies, we analyzed the anatomical organization of visual neuropils in the brain of the praying mantis Hierodula membranacea and provide supporting evidence from a second species, Rhombodera basalis, with particular focus on the lobula complex (LOX). Neuropils were three‐dimensionally reconstructed from synapsin‐immunostained whole mount brains. The neuropil organization and the pattern of γ‐aminobutyric acid immunostaining of the medulla and LOX were compared between the praying mantis and two related polyneopteran species, the Madeira cockroach and the desert locust. The investigated visual neuropils of the praying mantis are highly structured. Unlike in most insects the LOX of the praying mantis consists of five nested neuropils with at least one neuropil not present in the cockroach or locust. Overall, the mantis LOX is more similar to the LOX of the locust than the more closely related cockroach suggesting that the sensory ecology plays a stronger role than the phylogenetic distance of the three species in structuring this center of visual information processing.