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Zhang Q, Li L, Guo X, Zheng L, Wu Y, Zhou C. Implicit learning of symmetry of human movement and gray matter density: Evidence against pure domain general and pure domain specific theories of implicit learning. Int J Psychophysiol 2019; 147:60-71. [PMID: 31734444 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Theories of the neural basis of implicit learning postulated that specific regions were responsible for specific structures (e.g., supra-finite state) regardless of domain (e.g., vision, movement); others assumed that implicit learning was the adaptation that occurred within neural regions dealing with each domain. We explored whether people could implicitly learn to detect symmetry in biological motion, and if so, based on voxel-based morphometry (VBM), whether the learning was associated with language-related regions involved with supra-finite state grammars (such as symmetry) or motor-related regions. To explore the relevance of motor-related regions, we investigated brain structural changes in athletes compared with non-athletes and the advantage of athletes in implicit learning of action symmetry. Further, we examined whether motor imagery ability could account for the role of motor-related regions in this learning. Participants passively observed and memorized a number of biological motion sequences instantiating a symmetry rule and then judged new sequences as grammatical or not. Behaviorally, the implicit acquisition of symmetry could extend to process biological motion. Athletes showed superior classification accuracy and kinesthetic imagery ability, and gave more familiarity attributions. VBM results showed that athletes exhibited greater gray matter density in the right cerebellum, as well as the left lingual gyrus, the left precuneus, the left calcarine gyrus, and the right thalamus. Correlation analysis showed that the cerebellar gray matter density was positively associated with classification accuracy, which was mediated by kinesthetic imagery ability. Moreover, gray matter density of the left inferior frontal cortex was also positively associated with classification accuracy, indicating the involvement of regions related to symmetry learning across domains. The study provides initial evidence that implicit learning involves both adaptation within brain regions responsible for the specific domain as well as brain regions processing the same structure across domains, at least in a case of supra-finite state grammars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin Li
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xiuyan Guo
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, School of Physics and Materials Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China; National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Zheng
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuyan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, School of Physics and Materials Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chu Zhou
- Department of Psychology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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2
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Implicit sequence learning of chunking and abstract structures. Conscious Cogn 2019; 62:42-56. [PMID: 29723711 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The current study investigated whether people can simultaneously acquire knowledge about concrete chunks and abstract structures in implicit sequence learning; and whether the degree of abstraction determines the conscious status of the acquired knowledge. We adopted three types of stimuli in a serial reaction time task in three experiments. The RT results indicated that people could simultaneously acquire knowledge about concrete chunks and abstract structures of the temporal sequence. Generation performance revealed that ability to control was mainly based on abstract structures rather than concrete chunks. Moreover, ability to control was not generally accompanied with awareness of knowing or knowledge, as measured by confidence ratings and attribution tests, confirming that people could control the use of unconscious knowledge of abstract structures. The results present a challenge to computational models and theories of implicit learning.
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3
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Ling X, Zheng L, Guo X, Li S, Song S, Sun L, Dienes Z. Cross-cultural differences in implicit learning of chunks versus symmetries. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:180469. [PMID: 30473812 PMCID: PMC6227952 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.180469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Three experiments explore whether knowledge of grammars defining global versus local regularities has an advantage in implicit acquisition and whether this advantage is affected by cultural differences. Participants were asked to listen to and memorize a number of strings of 10 syllables instantiating an inversion (i.e. a global pattern); after the training phase, they were required to judge whether new strings were well formed. In Experiment 1, Western people implicitly acquired the inversion rule defined over the Chinese tones in a similar way as Chinese participants when alternative structures (specifically, chunking and repetition structures) were controlled. In Experiments 2 and 3, we directly pitted knowledge of the inversion (global) against chunk (local) knowledge, and found that Chinese participants had a striking global advantage in implicit learning, which was greater than that of Western participants. Taken together, we show for the first time cross-cultural differences in the type of regularities implicitly acquired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Ling
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Zheng
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, East China Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, East China Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiuyan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, East China Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Shouxin Li
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiyu Song
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Lining Sun
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Zoltan Dienes
- School of Psychology and Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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Westphal-Fitch G, Giustolisi B, Cecchetto C, Martin JS, Fitch WT. Artificial Grammar Learning Capabilities in an Abstract Visual Task Match Requirements for Linguistic Syntax. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1210. [PMID: 30087630 PMCID: PMC6066649 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether pattern-parsing mechanisms are specific to language or apply across multiple cognitive domains remains unresolved. Formal language theory provides a mathematical framework for classifying pattern-generating rule sets (or "grammars") according to complexity. This framework applies to patterns at any level of complexity, stretching from simple sequences, to highly complex tree-like or net-like structures, to any Turing-computable set of strings. Here, we explored human pattern-processing capabilities in the visual domain by generating abstract visual sequences made up of abstract tiles differing in form and color. We constructed different sets of sequences, using artificial "grammars" (rule sets) at three key complexity levels. Because human linguistic syntax is classed as "mildly context-sensitive," we specifically included a visual grammar at this complexity level. Acquisition of these three grammars was tested in an artificial grammar-learning paradigm: after exposure to a set of well-formed strings, participants were asked to discriminate novel grammatical patterns from non-grammatical patterns. Participants successfully acquired all three grammars after only minutes of exposure, correctly generalizing to novel stimuli and to novel stimulus lengths. A Bayesian analysis excluded multiple alternative hypotheses and shows that the success in rule acquisition applies both at the group level and for most participants analyzed individually. These experimental results demonstrate rapid pattern learning for abstract visual patterns, extending to the mildly context-sensitive level characterizing language. We suggest that a formal equivalence of processing at the mildly context sensitive level in the visual and linguistic domains implies that cognitive mechanisms with the computational power to process linguistic syntax are not specific to the domain of language, but extend to abstract visual patterns with no meaning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gesche Westphal-Fitch
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Carlo Cecchetto
- Department of Psychology, University of Milan-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
- Structures Formelles du Langage (Unité Mixte de Recherche CNRS and Université Paris 8), Paris, France
| | - Jordan S. Martin
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - W. Tecumseh Fitch
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Qiao F, Sun F, Li F, Ling X, Zheng L, Li L, Guo X, Dienes Z. Tonal Symmetry Induces Fluency and Sense of Well-Formedness. Front Psychol 2018. [PMID: 29527181 PMCID: PMC5829615 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluency influences grammaticality judgments of visually presented strings in artificial grammar learning (AGL). Of many potential sources that engender fluency, symmetry is considered to be an important factor. However, symmetry may function differently for visual and auditory stimuli, which present computationally different problems. Thus, the current study aimed to examine whether objectively manipulating fluency by speeding up perception (i.e., manipulating the inter-stimulus interval, ISI, between each syllable of a string) influenced judgments of tonal strings; and thus how symmetry-based fluency might influence judgments. In Experiment 1, with only a test phase, participants were required to give their preference ratings of tonal strings as a measurement of fluency. In experiment 2, participants were instructed to make grammaticality judgments after being incidentally trained on tonal symmetry. Results of Experiment 1 showed that tonal strings with shorter ISI were liked more than those with longer ISI while such difference was not found between symmetric and asymmetric strings without training. Additionally, Experiment 2 found both main effects of symmetry and ISI as well as an interaction. In particular, only asymmetric strings were more likely to be judged as grammatical when they were presented at a shorter ISI. Taken together, participants were sensitive to the fluency induced by the manipulation of ISI and sensitive to symmetry only after training. In sum, we conclude that objective speed influenced grammaticality judgments, implicit learning of tonal symmetry resulted in enhanced fluency, and that fluency may serve as a basis for grammaticality judgments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuqiang Qiao
- School of Education and Psychology, University of Jinan, Jinan, China
| | - Fenfen Sun
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fengying Li
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China
| | - Xiaoli Ling
- School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Li Zheng
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin Li
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiuyan Guo
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zoltan Dienes
- School of Psychology, Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
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Huang J, Dai H, Ye J, Zhu C, Li Y, Liu D. Impact of Response Stimulus Interval on Transfer of Non-local Dependent Rules in Implicit Learning: An ERP Investigation. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2107. [PMID: 29270141 PMCID: PMC5724352 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the literature on implicit learning, controversy exists regarding whether the knowledge obtained from implicit sequence learning consists of context-bound superficial features or context-free structural rules. To explore the nature of implicit knowledge, event related potentials (ERP) recordings of participants’ performances in a non-local dependent transfer task under two response-stimulus-interval (RSI) conditions (250 and 750 ms) were obtained. In the behavioral data, a transfer effect was found in the 750 ms RSI condition but not in the 250 ms RSI condition, suggesting that a long RSI is the basis for the occurrence of non-local dependent transfer, as which might have provided enough reaction time for participants to process and capture the implicit rule. Moreover, P300 amplitude was found to be sensitive to the impact of RSI on the training process (i.e., the longer RSI elicited higher P300 amplitudes), while variations in both N200 (i.e., a significant increase) and P300 amplitudes (i.e., a significant decrease) were found to be related to the presence of a transfer effect. Our results supported the claim that implicit learning can involve abstract rule knowledge acquisition under an appropriate RSI condition, and that amplitude variation in early ERP components (i.e., N200 and P300) can be useful indexes of non-local dependent learning and transfer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Huang
- Department of Psychology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Department of Psychology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Dai
- Student Affairs Office, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Ye
- Department of Psychology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Chuanlin Zhu
- Department of Psychology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yingli Li
- Department of Psychology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Dianzhi Liu
- Department of Psychology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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Ling X, Li F, Qiao F, Guo X, Dienes Z. Fluency Expresses Implicit Knowledge of Tonal Symmetry. Front Psychol 2016; 7:57. [PMID: 26869960 PMCID: PMC4737865 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The purposes of the present study were twofold. First, we sought to establish whether tonal symmetry produces processing fluency. Second, we sought to explore whether symmetry and chunk strength express themselves differently in fluency, as an indication of different mechanisms being involved for sub- and supra-finite state processing. Across two experiments, participants were asked to listen to and memorize artificial poetry showing a mirror symmetry (an inversion, i.e., a type of cross serial dependency); after this training phase, people completed a four-choice RT task in which they were presented with new artificial poetry. Participants were required to identify the stimulus displayed. We found that symmetry sped up responding to the second half of strings, indicating a fluency effect. Furthermore, there was a dissociation between fluency effects arising from symmetry vs. chunk strength, with stronger fluency effects for symmetry rather than chunks in the second half of strings. Taken together, we conjecture a divide between finite state and supra-finite state mechanisms in learning grammatical sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Ling
- School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University Shanghai, China
| | - Fengying Li
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University Jinhua, China
| | - Fuqiang Qiao
- School of Education and Psychology, University of Jinan Jinan, China
| | - Xiuyan Guo
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal UniversityShanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, East China Normal UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Zoltan Dienes
- School of Psychology, Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex Brighton, UK
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8
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Tanaka K, Watanabe K. Effects of learning duration on implicit transfer. Exp Brain Res 2015; 233:2767-76. [PMID: 26070899 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-015-4348-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Implicit learning and transfer in sequence acquisition play important roles in daily life. Several previous studies have found that even when participants are not aware that a transfer sequence has been transformed from the learning sequence, they are able to perform the transfer sequence faster and more accurately; this suggests implicit transfer of visuomotor sequences. Here, we investigated whether implicit transfer could be modulated by the number of trials completed in a learning session. Participants learned a sequence through trial and error, known as the m × n task (Hikosaka et al. in J Neurophysiol 74:1652-1661, 1995). In the learning session, participants were required to successfully perform the same sequence 4, 12, 16, or 20 times. In the transfer session, participants then learned one of two other sequences: one where the button configuration Vertically Mirrored the learning sequence, or a randomly generated sequence. Our results show that even when participants did not notice the alternation rule (i.e., vertical mirroring), their total working time was less and their total number of errors was lower in the transfer session compared with those who performed a Random sequence, irrespective of the number of trials completed in the learning session. This result suggests that implicit transfer likely occurs even over a shorter learning duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanji Tanaka
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan. .,Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan.,Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
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Rohrmeier M, Zuidema W, Wiggins GA, Scharff C. Principles of structure building in music, language and animal song. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 370:20140097. [PMID: 25646520 PMCID: PMC4321138 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human language, music and a variety of animal vocalizations constitute ways of sonic communication that exhibit remarkable structural complexity. While the complexities of language and possible parallels in animal communication have been discussed intensively, reflections on the complexity of music and animal song, and their comparisons, are underrepresented. In some ways, music and animal songs are more comparable to each other than to language as propositional semantics cannot be used as indicator of communicative success or wellformedness, and notions of grammaticality are less easily defined. This review brings together accounts of the principles of structure building in music and animal song. It relates them to corresponding models in formal language theory, the extended Chomsky hierarchy (CH), and their probabilistic counterparts. We further discuss common misunderstandings and shortcomings concerning the CH and suggest ways to move beyond. We discuss language, music and animal song in the context of their function and motivation and further integrate problems and issues that are less commonly addressed in the context of language, including continuous event spaces, features of sound and timbre, representation of temporality and interactions of multiple parallel feature streams. We discuss these aspects in the light of recent theoretical, cognitive, neuroscientific and modelling research in the domains of music, language and animal song.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rohrmeier
- Institut für Kunst- und Musikwissenschaft, Technische Universität Dresden, August-Bebel-Straße 20, 01219 Dresden, Germany
| | - Willem Zuidema
- ILLC, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94242, 1090 CE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Geraint A Wiggins
- School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4FZ, UK
| | - Constance Scharff
- Animal Behavior, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustraße 6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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Implicit transfer of spatial structure in visuomotor sequence learning. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2014; 153:1-12. [PMID: 25261739 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Revised: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Implicit learning and transfer in sequence learning are essential in daily life. Here, we investigated the implicit transfer of visuomotor sequences following a spatial transformation. In the two experiments, participants used trial and error to learn a sequence consisting of several button presses, known as the m×n task (Hikosaka et al., 1995). After this learning session, participants learned another sequence in which the button configuration was spatially transformed in one of the following ways: mirrored, rotated, and random arrangement. Our results showed that even when participants were unaware of the transformation rules, accuracy of transfer session in the mirrored and rotated groups was higher than that in the random group (i.e., implicit transfer occurred). Both those who noticed the transformation rules and those who did not (i.e., explicit and implicit transfer instances, respectively) showed faster performance in the mirrored sequences than in the rotated sequences. Taken together, the present results suggest that people can use their implicit visuomotor knowledge to spatially transform sequences and that implicit transfers are modulated by a transformation cost, similar to that in explicit transfer.
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Ziori E, Pothos EM, Dienes Z. Role of prior knowledge in implicit and explicit learning of artificial grammars. Conscious Cogn 2014; 28:1-16. [PMID: 24999179 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2013] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Artificial grammar learning (AGL) performance reflects both implicit and explicit processes and has typically been modeled without incorporating any influence from general world knowledge. Our research provides a systematic investigation of the implicit vs. explicit nature of general knowledge and its interaction with knowledge types investigated by past AGL research (i.e., rule- and similarity-based knowledge). In an AGL experiment, a general knowledge manipulation involved expectations being either congruent or incongruent with training stimulus structure. Inconsistent observations paradoxically led to an advantage in structural knowledge and in the use of general world knowledge in both explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) cases (as assessed by subjective measures). The above findings were obtained under conditions of reduced processing time and impaired executive resources. Key findings from our work are that implicit AGL can clearly be affected by general knowledge, and implicit learning can be enhanced by the violation of expectations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Ziori
- Department of Psychology, University of Ioannina, Greece.
| | | | - Zoltán Dienes
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science and School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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