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Zhang Z, Zong X, Bai H, Fan L, Li T, Liu Z. Prevalence of Mycoplasma genitalium and Chlamydia trachomatis in Chinese female with lower reproductive tract infection: a multicenter epidemiological survey. BMC Infect Dis 2023; 23:2. [PMID: 36604611 PMCID: PMC9814310 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-022-07975-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma infections have been regarded as severe challenges to public health worldwide because their potential risk of leading to serious reproductive complications. C. trachomatis is the most common sexually transmitted bacterial infections and the prevalence has been increasing in recent years. As a newly discovered pathogen, Mycoplasma genitalium has gradually been recognized as important sexually transmitted infection and even been called a "new chlamydia". There are no official epidemiological data of M. genitalium in China especially in women with lower reproductive tract infection. This work aims to understand the prevalence and risk factors of M. genitalium and C. trachomatis in women with lower reproductive tract infections and to provide reference for the formulation of health policy in China. METHODS This study was conducted in the gynecological clinics of 12 hospitals geographically located in different regions in China. Women with purulent cervical secretions or abnormal vaginal microecology were included as the research group, and those with normal vaginal microecology and cervical secretions were included as the control group. A total of 2190 participants were recruited in this project including 1357 of research group and 833 of control group. All participants were required to complete questionnaires, whose vaginal discharge were collected for vaginal microecology test and cervical discharge for detection of M. genitalium and C. trachomatis. RESULTS The prevalence of C. trachomatis and M. genitalium were 7.1% (96/1357) and 3.8% (51/1357), respectively in research group. The prevalence of C. trachomatis and M. genitalium varied in different regions. Infection rates of C. trachomatis and M. genitalium were higher in women with abnormal vaginal microecology (C.t P = 0.038, M.g P = 0.043), especially in women with bacterial vaginosis and mixed vaginitis, of which C. trachomatis showed statistical differences (bacterial vaginosis, P = 0.035; mixed vaginitis, P = 0.0001) and M. genitalium was close to statistical differences (bacterial vaginosis, P = 0.057; mixed vaginitis, P = 0.081). Alcoholism and abnormal vaginal microecology were positively correlated with both C. trachomatis and M. genitalium infection. Increasing age, being married and multi-parity were negatively correlated with C. trachomatis infection. There is a positive correlation between multiple sexual partners, diversed styles of sex and C. trachomatis infection. CONCLUSIONS Women with lower genital dysbiosis have an increased risk of C. trachomatis and M. genitalium. The overall prevalence of M. genitalium is lower than that of C. trachomatis, while they have similarities in the characteristics of infection. Although M. genitalium is not routinely screened as C. trachomatis in young women, attention should be paid to M. genitalium infection in young women with abnormal vaginal microecology or having childbearing needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhan Zhang
- grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XThe Gynecology Department of Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 251 of Yaojiayuan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaonan Zong
- grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XThe Gynecology Department of Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 251 of Yaojiayuan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
| | - Huihui Bai
- grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XMicroecological Laboratory of Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 251 of Yaojiayuan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
| | - Linyuan Fan
- grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XThe Gynecology Department of Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 251 of Yaojiayuan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Li
- grid.24696.3f0000 0004 0369 153XThe Gynecology Department of Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 251 of Yaojiayuan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
| | - Zhaohui Liu
- The Gynecology Department of Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 251 of Yaojiayuan Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China.
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Dhawan B, Raj JS, Rawre J, Dhawan N, Khanna N. Mycoplasma genitalium: A new superbug. Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS 2022; 43:1-12. [PMID: 35846530 PMCID: PMC9282694 DOI: 10.4103/ijstd.ijstd_103_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma genitalium (MG) is an emerging sexually transmitted pathogen. It is an important cause of nongonococcal urethritis in men and is associated with cervicitis and pelvic inflammatory disease in women, putting them at risk of infertility. Multiple factors that aid pathogenesis of MG include its ability of adhesion, gliding motility, and intracellular invasion by means of the tip organelle. Through intracellular localization and antigenic variation, MG could result in treatment-resistant chronic infection. There are limited data on the prevalence of MG in Indian patients with urogenital syndromes. Recently, a high prevalence of extra genital infection with MG has been reported. Molecular assays are the major diagnostic techniques of MG infection. Antimicrobial agents such as macrolides, along with fluoroquinolones, are the treatment of choice for MG infections. The issue of drug resistance to azithromycin and fluoroquinolones in MG is rising globally. As molecular tests are becoming available for MG, both for the diagnosis and the detection of antimicrobial resistance, any patient with MG infection should then be tested for antimicrobial resistance. Consideration of MG as a cause of sexually transmitted disease in the Indian population is crucial in diagnostic algorithms and treatment strategies. The purpose of this review is to understand the prevalence of MG in different clinical scenarios, molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis, current status of antimicrobial resistance, and its impact on MG treatment.
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Moore KR, Tomar M, Taylor BD, Gygax SE, Hilbert DW, Baird DD. Mycoplasma genitalium and Bacterial Vaginosis-Associated Bacteria in a Non-Clinic-Based Sample of African American Women. Sex Transm Dis 2021; 48:118-122. [PMID: 32925595 PMCID: PMC7855098 DOI: 10.1097/olq.0000000000001275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycoplasma genitalium is associated with adverse reproductive problems. However, prevalence estimates from studies that screen women not seeking care are rare. Studies have reported co-occurrence of M. genitalium with bacterial vaginosis (BV), but no prior study of specific BV-associated bacteria has been conducted in African Americans whose reproductive tract infection burden is high. METHODS Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, we screened vaginal swabs for M. genitalium, 9 BV-associated bacteria, and 4 Lactobacillus species from 200 participants drawn from a cohort of African Americans 23 to 35 years old. Sexual history, herpes serostatus, and Nugent score had been assessed. Prevalence of M. genitalium was computed. The associations of other vaginal bacteria with M. genitalium were examined with binomial regression. RESULTS M. genitalium prevalence was 18%. Detection and quantity of 2 BV-associated bacteria were significantly associated with a higher prevalence of M. genitalium (Leptotrichia/Sneathia: detection prevalence ratio (PR) of 2.9 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.1-7.7] and quantity PR of 1.2 [95% CI, 1.0-1.3]; Megasphaera phylotype 1: detection PR of 2.2 [95% CI, 1.2-4.2] and quantity PR of 1.1 [95% CI, 1.0-1.2]). Increased quantity of L. iners was also positively associated with M. genitalium (PR, 1.3 [95% CI, 1.0-1.8]). Nugent ≥7, herpes serostatus, and lifetime number of sex partners were not associated with M. genitalium. CONCLUSIONS Specific BV-associated microbes and L. iners were associated with M. genitalium, but Nugent ≥7 was not. Studies are needed to confirm a high prevalence of M. genitalium in African Americans and to understand its interactions with other vaginal bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen R. Moore
- Epidemiology Branch A3-05, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Meena Tomar
- Femeris Women’s Health Research Center, Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, A Division of Genesis Biotechnology Group, Hamilton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Brandie D. Taylor
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Scott E. Gygax
- Femeris Women’s Health Research Center, Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, A Division of Genesis Biotechnology Group, Hamilton, New Jersey, USA
- Current address: Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences and Biotechnology, Jefferson College of Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, 130 S. 9 St., Philadelphia, PA 19017, USA
| | - David W. Hilbert
- Femeris Women’s Health Research Center, Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, A Division of Genesis Biotechnology Group, Hamilton, New Jersey, USA
- Current address: Merck, 770 Sumneytown Pike, West Point, PA 19486
| | - Donna D. Baird
- Epidemiology Branch A3-05, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Upton A, Bissessor L, Lowe P, Wang X, McAuliffe G. Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis and Mycoplasma genitalium: an observational study of testing patterns, prevalence and co-infection rates in northern New Zealand. Sex Health 2019; 15:232-237. [PMID: 29262291 DOI: 10.1071/sh17110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background This study sought to determine community prevalence, epidemiology and testing patterns for sexually transmissible infections (STI) in northern New Zealand. METHODS A total of 2643 samples submitted for STI testing between 26 November 2015 and 7 December 2015 underwent analysis by Aptima Combo 2 (Hologic, San Diego, CA, USA), Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), and Mycoplasma genitalium (MG) assays. Results were analysed by patient demographics. RESULTS Four hundred and eleven pathogens were detected from 359 patients, with Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG), TV, and MG detected in 178 (6.7%), 19 (0.7%), 80 (3%) and 134 (5.1%) samples respectively. With the exception of TV, STI prevalence was highest in people <25 years of age. Infection was more common in men for NG (odds ratio (OR) 5.05, P<0.001) and CT (OR 2.72, P<0.001). Māori and Pacific ethnicity were associated with increased risk of MG (OR 1.82, P=0.006,) TV (OR 6.1, P<0.001) and CT (OR 3.31, P<0.001) infection, and TV and NG infections were more prevalent as social deprivation increased. A mismatch between testing rates and prevalence of infection was seen, with fewer tests performed for males (OR 0.2, P<0.001) than females and no difference in testing of Māori and Pacific men (3064/100000) compared with men of European background (3181/100000, OR 0.96, P=0.76), despite an increased risk of disease. CONCLUSIONS There are disparately low testing rates for STIs in certain high-risk groups in northern New Zealand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arlo Upton
- Microbiology Department, Labtests, 31 - 41 Carbine road, Auckland 2022, New Zealand
| | - Liselle Bissessor
- Microbiology Department, Labtests, 31 - 41 Carbine road, Auckland 2022, New Zealand
| | - Peter Lowe
- Hologic (Australia) Pty Ltd, Suite 402, Level 4, 2 Lyon Park Road, Macquarie Park NSW 2113, Australia
| | - Xiaoying Wang
- Hologic, Clinical Affair Department, Grifols Diagnostic Solutions Inc., 10210 Genetic Center Drive, San Diego, CA92121, USA
| | - Gary McAuliffe
- Microbiology Department, Labtests, 31 - 41 Carbine road, Auckland 2022, New Zealand
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De Carvalho NS, Palú G, Witkin SS. Mycoplasma genitalium, a stealth female reproductive tract. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 39:229-234. [PMID: 31522281 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-019-03707-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma genitalium was first isolated from the urethral swabs of two symptomatic men with urethritis in 1980. It is a sexually transmitted bacterium associated with a number of urogenital conditions in women like cervicitis, endometritis, pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, and susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). However, M. genitalium may also act like a stealth pathogen at female reproductive tract, giving no symptoms. Its prevalence varies between different groups, with the average being 0.5-10% in the general population and 20-40% in women with sexually transmitted infections. The recommended treatment of this infection is azithromycin as a single 1-g dose. However, in recent years, macrolide resistance has increased which is significantly lowering the cure rate, being less than 50% in some studies. New treatment regimens need to be investigated due to increasing drug resistance. The discussion and suggestion of an algorithm for management of this infection is the highlight of this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Newton Sergio De Carvalho
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department of Federal University of Paraná (DTG/UFPR), Gynecology and Obstetrics Infections Sector from Clinical Hospital - UFPR, Rua Saldanha Marinho 1422 - 801, Curitiba, Paraná, CEP 80430-160, Brazil.
| | - Gabriele Palú
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department of Federal University of Paraná (DTG/UFPR), Gynecology and Obstetrics Infections Sector from Clinical Hospital - UFPR, Rua Saldanha Marinho 1422 - 801, Curitiba, Paraná, CEP 80430-160, Brazil
| | - Steven S Witkin
- Division of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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Frequency of Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma genitalium, and Ureaplasma urealyticum Isolated From Vaginal Samples of Women in Kerman, Iran. ARCHIVES OF CLINICAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2018. [DOI: 10.5812/archcid.65334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Donders GGG, Ruban K, Bellen G, Petricevic L. Mycoplasma/Ureaplasma infection in pregnancy: to screen or not to screen. J Perinat Med 2017; 45:505-515. [PMID: 28099135 DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2016-0111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasmata have been linked to pregnancy complications and neonatal risk. While formerly a limited number of species could be discovered by cultures, molecular biology nowadays discovers both lower quantities and more diverse species, making us realize that mycoplasmata are ubiquitous in the vaginal milieu and do not always pose a danger for pregnant women. As the meaning of mycoplasmata in pregnancy is not clear to many clinicians, we summarized the current knowledge about the meaning of different kinds of mycoplasmata in pregnancy and discuss the potential benefits and disadvantages of treatment. Currently, there is no general rule to screen and treat for mycoplasmata in pregnancy. New techniques seem to indicate that Ureaplasma parvum (Up), which now can be distinguished from U. urealyticum (Uu), may pose an increased risk for preterm birth and bronchopulmonary disease in the preterm neonate. Mycoplasma hominis (Mh) is related to early miscarriages and midtrimester abortions, especially in the presence of abnormal vaginal flora. Mycoplasma genitalium (Mg) is now recognized as a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that is involved in the causation of cervicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in non-pregnant, and preterm birth and miscarriages in pregnant women, irrespective of the presence of concurrent other STIs, like Chlamydia or gonorrhoea. Proper studies to test for efficacy and improved pregnancy outcome are scarce and inconclusive. Azythromycin is the standard treatment now, although, for Mg, this may not be sufficient. The role of clarithromycin in clinical practice still has to be established. There is a stringent need for new studies based on molecular diagnostic techniques and randomized treatment protocols with promising and safe antimicrobials.
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Lokken EM, Balkus JE, Kiarie J, Hughes JP, Jaoko W, Totten PA, McClelland RS, Manhart LE. Association of Recent Bacterial Vaginosis With Acquisition of Mycoplasma genitalium. Am J Epidemiol 2017; 186:194-201. [PMID: 28472225 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwx043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We assessed the association between recent bacterial vaginosis (BV) and incident Mycoplasma genitalium, a sexually transmitted bacterium associated with adverse female reproductive health outcomes. Female sex workers in Mombasa, Kenya, completed a monthly sexual behavior interview and clinical examination. During February 2005-February 2006, vaginal fluid specimens collected from women every other month were tested for M. genitalium by nucleic acid amplification testing. Vaginal microbiota were assessed monthly and categorized by Nugent score (0-3 = normal microbiota, 4-6 = intermediate microbiota disruption, and 7-10 = BV). A discrete failure time analysis for multiple events using logistic regression was employed to estimate the odds of incident M. genitalium infection at follow-up visits among women with BV (vs. normal microbiota) at the preceding visit. Among the 280 women, 54.3% were positive for human immunodeficiency virus. At baseline, 16.1% had prevalent M. genitalium infection and 40.4% had prevalent BV. There were 59 incident M. genitalium infections among 50 women, for an incidence rate of 34.6 cases per 100 person-years. Following adjustment for age, human immunodeficiency virus status, and time, prior BV was associated with a 3.5-fold increase in odds of incident M. genitalium (adjusted odds ratio = 3.49, 95% confidence interval: 1.86, 6.56). This strong association suggests that BV may enhance susceptibility to M. genitalium infection.
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Wiesenfeld HC, Manhart LE. Mycoplasma genitalium in Women: Current Knowledge and Research Priorities for This Recently Emerged Pathogen. J Infect Dis 2017; 216:S389-S395. [PMID: 28838078 PMCID: PMC5853983 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jix198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Health consequences of sexually transmitted diseases disproportionately affect women, making it important to determine whether newly emerged pathogens cause sequelae. Although the pathogenic role of Mycoplasma genitalium in male urethritis is clear, fewer studies have been conducted among women to determine its pathogenic role in the female reproductive tract. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an important cause of infertility and ectopic pregnancy, and Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are recognized microbial causes. Emerging data demonstrate an association between M. genitalium and PID, and limited data suggest associations with infertility and preterm birth, yet the attributable risk for female genital tract infections remains to be defined. Further investigations are needed to better define the impact of M. genitalium on women's reproductive health. Importantly, prospective studies evaluating whether screening programs and targeted treatment of M. genitalium improve reproductive outcomes in women are necessary to guide public health policy for this emerging pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harold C Wiesenfeld
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and Magee-Womens Research Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lisa E Manhart
- Departments of Epidemiology and Global Health, Center for AIDS and STD, University of Washington, Seattle
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Cox C, Watt AP, McKenna JP, Coyle PV. Mycoplasma hominis and Gardnerella vaginalis display a significant synergistic relationship in bacterial vaginosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 35:481-7. [PMID: 26796553 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-015-2564-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Gardnerella vaginalis plays an important role in bacterial vaginosis (BV,) while the role of genital Mollicutes is less obvious. The diagnosis of BV by use of the current Gram stain Nugent score is also suboptimal for defining the role of Mollicutes that lack a cell wall. Since bacterial load and diversity is an important prerequisite for BV, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays enable these to be assessed. The purpose of this study was to define the role of genital Mollicutes and potential patterns of synergy with G. vaginalis in women with BV. Vaginal swabs from 130 women categorised by Nugent score as BV (n = 28), intermediate (n = 22) and non-BV (n = 80) were tested against four qPCR TaqMan assays targeting G. vaginalis, Mycoplasma hominis, M. genitalium, Ureaplasma urealyticum and U. parvum. Statistical analyses were used to compare bacterial prevalence and load between the three groups of women. Mycoplasma hominis and G. vaginalis co-infection was significantly more common in BV (60.7 %) compared to intermediate (36.4 %) and non-BV (8.8 %) Nugent scores (p < 0.001). Significantly higher loads of M. hominis (p = 0.001) and G. vaginalis (p < 0.001) were detected in women with BV and the respective loads in M. hominis and G. vaginalis co-infections displayed a significant positive correlation (p < 0.001; r = 0.60). No significant associations were seen with the other Mollicutes. The findings strengthen the evidence of a role for M. hominis in BV and a potential synergy with G. vaginalis. This synergy could be an important trigger of the condition and sexual contact the conduit for the transmission of an otherwise commensal bacterium that could initiate it.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cox
- Regional Virus Laboratory, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK. .,Centre for Infection and Immunity, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK.
| | - A P Watt
- Regional Virus Laboratory, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - J P McKenna
- Regional Virus Laboratory, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - P V Coyle
- Regional Virus Laboratory, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
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Daley GM, Russell DB, Tabrizi SN, McBride J. Mycoplasma genitalium: a review. Int J STD AIDS 2014; 25:475-87. [DOI: 10.1177/0956462413515196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma genitalium (M. genitalium) was first isolated from the urethral swabs of two symptomatic men with urethritis in 1980. Published prevalence rates vary greatly between populations studied. A number of urogenital conditions have been ascribed to M. genitalium, which is recognised to cause a sexually transmitted infection. The association of M. genitalium with non-specific urethritis is now well established, but the evidence supporting its role in both male and female infertility remains inconclusive. Laboratory methods are challenging and there is a lack of test standardisation. The recommended treatment of the infection is azithromycin as a single 1 gm dose. However, in recent years macrolide resistance has been observed. More studies are required to establish the clinical importance of M. genitalium in urogenital conditions, particularly infertility, and to establish the role for screening and treatment in high-risk populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- GM Daley
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia
| | - DB Russell
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia
- Sexual Health Service, Cairns, QLD, Australia
- School of Population Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - SN Tabrizi
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The Royal Women’s Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - J McBride
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia
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12
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Hamasuna R. Mycoplasma genitaliumin male urethritis: Diagnosis and treatment in Japan. Int J Urol 2013; 20:676-84. [DOI: 10.1111/iju.12152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryoichi Hamasuna
- Department of Urology; University of Occupational and Environmental Health; Kitakyushu; Japan
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13
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Abnormal vaginal pH and Mycoplasma genitalium infection. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2013; 26:36-9. [PMID: 23158750 PMCID: PMC3552140 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpag.2012.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE Mycoplasma genitalium (MG) is a sexually transmitted pathogen linked to female morbidity, but testing for MG is not standardized. We aimed to determine which point-of-care (POC) vaginal tests could predict MG infection. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS A cross sectional study recruited sexually active adolescent women, aged 14-22 y (n = 217) from an urban medical center. INTERVENTIONS AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Vaginal swabs were POC tested for pH, amines, clue cells, sialidase, and Trichomonas vaginalis (TV). MG was detected by research-use-only transcription mediated amplification (TMA) assay. Presence of Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) were confirmed using TMA. Three criteria were required for diagnosis of clinical BV: pH > 4.5, presence of amines, and >20% clue cells. Associations were assessed using logistic regression (LR). RESULTS TMA detected MG in 30 (14%), CT in 49 (23%), and NG in 21 (10%) of the samples tested. POC vaginal tests were positive for TV in 21%, amines in 52%, clue cells in 33%, sialidase in 22%, pH > 4.5 in 56%, and clinical BV in 19% of the samples tested. Using LR, pH > 4.5 was a predictor of MG (odds ratio 4.4, P < .05). Of 131 women without clinical BV or TV, 25% of those with pH > 4.5 had MG, compared to 9% of those with pH ≤ 4.5 (P = .02). CONCLUSIONS Until standardized, approved testing for MG is available, pH may be a useful indicator to suspect MG, especially in the absence of BV and TV.
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14
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Hamasuna R. Identification of treatment strategies for Mycoplasma genitalium-related urethritis in male patients by culturing and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. J Infect Chemother 2012; 19:1-11. [PMID: 23076335 DOI: 10.1007/s10156-012-0487-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma genitalium was first isolated from urethral swab specimens of male patients with non-gonococcal urethritis. However, the isolation of M. genitalium strains from clinical specimens has been difficult. Co-cultivation with Vero cells is one available technique for the isolation of M. genitalium. The strains that can be used for antimicrobial susceptibility testing by broth dilution or agar dilution methods are limited. Macrolides, such as azithromycin (AZM), have the strongest activity against M. genitalium. However, AZM-resistant strains have emerged and spread. Mutations in the 23S rRNA gene contribute to the organism's macrolide resistance, which is similar to the effects of the mutations in macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Of the fluoroquinolones, moxifloxacin (MFLX) and sitafloxacin have the strongest activities against M. genitalium, while levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin are not as effective. Some clinical trials on the treatment of M. genitalium-related urethritis are available in the literature. A doxycycline regimen was microbiologically inferior to an AZM regimen. For cases of treatment failure with AZM regimens, MFLX regimens were effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoichi Hamasuna
- Department of Urology, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, 1-1 Iseigaoka, Yahatanishi-ku, Kitakyushu, 807-8555, Japan.
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Mycoplasma genitalium: from Chrysalis to multicolored butterfly. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24:498-514. [PMID: 21734246 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00006-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 345] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The history, replication, genetics, characteristics (both biological and physical), and factors involved in the pathogenesis of Mycoplasma genitalium are presented. The latter factors include adhesion, the influence of hormones, motility, possible toxin production, and immunological responses. The preferred site of colonization, together with current detection procedures, mainly by PCR technology, is discussed. The relationships between M. genitalium and various diseases are highlighted. These diseases include acute and chronic nongonococcal urethritis, balanoposthitis, chronic prostatitis, and acute epididymitis in men and urethritis, bacterial vaginosis, vaginitis, cervicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, and reproductive disease in women. A causative relationship, or otherwise strong association, between several of these diseases and M. genitalium is apparent, and the extent of this, on a subjective basis, is presented; also provided is a comparison between M. genitalium and two other genital tract-orientated mollicutes, namely, Mycoplasma hominis, the first mycoplasma of human origin to be discovered, and Ureaplasma species. Also discussed is the relationship between M. genitalium and infertility and also arthritis in both men and women, as is infection in homosexual and immunodeficient patients. Decreased immunity, as in HIV infections, may enhance mycoplasmal detection and increase disease severity. Finally, aspects of the antimicrobial susceptibility and resistance of M. genitalium, together with the treatment and possible prevention of mycoplasmal disease, are discussed.
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Mirnejad R, Amirmozafari N, Kazemi B. Simultaneous and rapid differential diagnosis of Mycoplasma genitalium and Ureaplasma urealyticum based on a polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Indian J Med Microbiol 2011; 29:33-6. [PMID: 21304192 DOI: 10.4103/0255-0857.76521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this investigation was to simultaneously detect and differentiate Mycoplasma genitalium and Ureaplasma urealyticum in female patients suffering from genital complications by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). MATERIALS AND METHODS Genital swabs were taken from 210 patients. They were transported to the laboratory in phosphate-buffered saline. For PCR, samples were analysed with genus-specific MyUu-R and MyUu-F primers. This primer set, which was originally designed in our laboratory, amplified a 465 bp fragment (M. genitalium) and a 559 bp fragment (U. urealyticum). Samples containing a band of the expected sizes for the Mycoplasma strains were subjected to digestion with a restriction endonuclease enzyme of TaqI and Cac8I. RESULTS Of the 210 samples, a total of 100 (47.6%) samples were found to be positive for Mycoplasmas (seven M. genitalium isolates, 3.3%; and 89 U. urealyticum isolates, 42.4%), and coinfections with both species were detected in four samples (1.9%). The PCR-RFLP results showed that M. genitalium and U. urealyticum are different by enzyme patterns. CONCLUSION PCR-RFLP offers a rapid and easily applicable protocol to simultaneous detection and differentiation of M. genitalium and U. urealyticum from clinical samples when specific primers and restriction enzymes are used.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mirnejad
- Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Abstract
Mycoplasma genitalium is an emerging sexually transmitted pathogen implicated in urethritis in men and several inflammatory reproductive tract syndromes in women including cervicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), and infertility. This comprehensive review critically examines epidemiologic studies of M. genitalium infections in women with the goal of assessing the associations with reproductive tract disease and enhancing awareness of this emerging pathogen. Over 27,000 women from 48 published reports have been screened for M. genitalium urogenital infection in high- or low-risk populations worldwide with an overall prevalence of 7.3% and 2.0%, respectively. M. genitalium was present in the general population at rates between those of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Considering more than 20 studies of lower tract inflammation, M. genitalium has been positively associated with urethritis, vaginal discharge, and microscopic signs of cervicitis and/or mucopurulent cervical discharge in seven of 14 studies. A consistent case definition of cervicitis is lacking and will be required for comprehensive understanding of these associations. Importantly, evidence for M. genitalium PID and infertility are quite convincing and indicate that a significant proportion of upper tract inflammation may be attributed to this elusive pathogen. Collectively, M. genitalium is highly prevalent in high- and low-risk populations, and should be considered an etiologic agent of select reproductive tract disease syndromes in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris L McGowin
- Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America.
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Hilton J, Azariah S, Reid M. A case-control study of men with non-gonococcal urethritis at Auckland Sexual Health Service: rates of detection of Mycoplasma genitalium. Sex Health 2010; 7:77-81. [PMID: 20152101 DOI: 10.1071/sh09092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have identified Mycoplasma genitalium as a cause of urethritis in men. As there is no New Zealand data, a case-control study was conducted to determine whether this organism is a significant cause of urethritis in men presenting to Auckland Sexual Health Service. METHODS Enrollment for the study commenced in March 2006 and finished in February 2008. Inclusion criteria for cases of non-gonococcal urethritis were onset of urethritis symptoms within one month confirmed by urethral Gram staining showing >or=10 polymorphonuclear leucocytes per high-powered field. Controls were men presenting during the same time period for asymptomatic sexual health screening. All participants were tested for Neisseria gonorrhoeae, M. genitalium, and Chlamydia trachomatis. Information regarding symptoms, sexual behaviour and treatment was collected using a standard questionnaire. RESULTS We recruited 209 cases and 199 controls with a participation rate of 96%. The prevalence of C. trachomatis and M. genitalium in non-gonococcal urethritis cases was 33.5% and 10% respectively. Co-infection with these organisms was uncommon (1.9%). C. trachomatis and M. genitalium were diagnosed in 4% and 2% of controls, respectively, and both infections were detected significantly less often than in the cases (P < 0.0001, P < 0.005). Cases were more likely to report inconsistent condom use, multiple sexual contacts and not having sexual intercourse in the last week (P = 0.03, P = 0.02, P = 0.03). A past history of non-gonococcal urethritis was a significant predictor of current symptoms (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS This is the first study to investigate M. genitalium infection in New Zealand men. Our results confirm that M. genitalium is a cause of non-gonococcal urethritis in men presenting to our service.
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Bjartling C, Osser S, Persson K. The association between Mycoplasma genitalium and pelvic inflammatory disease after termination of pregnancy. BJOG 2009; 117:361-4. [PMID: 20015303 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2009.02455.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence and complications of Mycoplasma genitalium and Chlamydia trachomatis infections among women undergoing termination of pregnancy were studied in this nested case-control study at Malmo University Hospital, Sweden, during 2003 to 2007. The study comprised 2079 women presenting for termination of pregnancy. Forty-nine women with M. genitalium infection and 51 women with C. trachomatis infection, together with 168 negative control women, were evaluated. The prevalences of M. genitalium and C. trachomatis were 2.5% and 2.8%, respectively. The M. genitalium was strongly associated with post-termination pelvic inflammatory disease (odds ratio 6.29, 95% CI 1.56-25.2). The increased risk for pelvic inflammatory disease associated with M. genitalium infection after termination of pregnancy suggests a causal relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bjartling
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Malmo University Hospital, Malmo, Sweden.
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