Attachment and Dyadic Regulation Processes

The Impact of Romantic Attachment Styles on Jealousy in Young Adults

Background

Romantic attachment is reflected in various aspects of dyadic interaction in a couple, since it is a self-reinforcing system of cognitive, emotional and behavioral patterns. Romantic jealousy was shown to be associated with dimensions of attachment insecurity in various studies worldwide.

Objectives

To identify differences in expressions of romantic jealousy based on romantic attachment style. To determine the influence of attachment-related anxiety and attachment-related avoidance on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral jealousy.

Design

The sample comprised 171 heterosexual individuals. The "Experiences in Close Relationships - Revised" questionnaire (ECR-R; Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000; adapted for Russian by Chursina, 2022) and "Multidimensional Jealousy Scale" (MJS; Pfeiffer, & Wong, 1989) were used.

Results

A number of significant differences were identified between insecure and secure attachment styles. Avoidant attachment is characterized by cognitive jealousy, ambivalent attachment is characterized by cognitive and behavioral jealousy, while dismissing attachment showed no significant differences in the manifestations of jealousy in comparison with secure attachment style. Emotional jealousy is equally characteristic of all types. The primacy of romantic attachment in relation to cognitive and behavioral jealousy was also proved.

Conclusion

The experience of jealousy differs among romantic attachment styles. Attachment-related anxiety is a predictor of intrusive thoughts and behavioral manifestations of jealousy, while attachment-related avoidance is less, the greater the manifestation of jealousy behaviors.

Coping or Thriving? Reviewing Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Societal Factors Associated With Well-Being in Singlehood From a Within-Group Perspective

Singlehood, defined as not being in a romantic relationship, is becoming increasingly common worldwide. Despite this, research on singlehood has not received remotely equivalent research attention as romantic relationships. Well-being research that has explicitly included singles has focused on whether coupled versus single people are more satisfied with their lives. However, these between-group comparisons have not attended to within-group variability among singles that can point to when and for whom singlehood is associated with thriving. In this review, we document findings from the emerging field of singlehood studies to highlight what is and is not known about factors that are associated with the well-being of single individuals from a within-group perspective. Our review examines (a) intrapersonal factors (characteristics of the individual), (b) interpersonal experiences (qualities of one's social relationships and experiences), and (c) societal influences (features related to one's broader social or cultural context) related to well-being in singlehood. We conclude by offering future directions for the conceptualization of and research on singlehood with the goal of promoting a thorough and inclusive perspective.

Individual differences in social homeostasis

The concept of “social homeostasis”, introduced by Matthews and Tye in 2019, has provided a framework with which to consider our changing individual needs for social interaction, and the neurobiology underlying this system. This model was conceived as including detector systems, a control center with a setpoint, and effectors which allow us to seek out or avoid additional social contact. In this article, we review and theorize about the many different factors that might contribute to the setpoint of a person or animal, including individual, social, cultural, and other environmental factors. We conclude with a consideration of the empirical challenges of this exciting new model.

The Role of Attachment and Dyadic Coping in Shaping Relational Intimacy: Actor-Partner Interdependence Model

People's attachment styles play a fundamental role in shaping their intimate relationships. Anxiously attached individuals have a strong need for closeness but a poor ability to obtain the closeness they seek. In contrast, people high in avoidance tend to avoid intimacy in close relationships. Dyadic coping can strengthen the bond between partners, and develop empathy, commitment, sensitivity, and responsiveness to the partner's needs, which may be the basis of shaping intimacy and closeness. The effects of attachment on relational intimacy were examined, using the actor-partner interdependence model and data from 144 heterosexual couples, aged 26 to 60. Both partners completed measures of attachment, intimacy as a relationship satisfaction dimension, and dyadic coping. The results showed that men's attachment-related avoidance is related to their own intimacy; also, the avoidant attachment of both spouses is related to each other's intimacy. The effect of having children on intimacy was significant for men; the effect of financial situation on intimacy was significant for women. Moreover, problem-focused common dyadic coping appeared to have a significant moderating effect on the relationship between attachment-related avoidance and intimacy. Adult attachment and dyadic coping significantly contributed to partners' relational intimacy.

Supportive, Delegated, and Common Dyadic Coping Mediates the Association between Adult Attachment Representation and Relationship Satisfaction: A Dyadic Approach

The aim of this study was to examine intrapersonal (actor) and interpersonal (partner) associations between attachment, assessed by the Adult Attachment Interview, and satisfaction with the relationship, as well as to establish the possibility of the mediatory effect of supportive, delegated, and common dyadic coping on the aforementioned associations. A dyadic approach has been introduced, using the actor–partner interdependence mediation model and data from 114 heterosexual couples, aged 26 to 60. It has been shown that one’s own secure attachment can be perceived as the predictor of one’s own relationship satisfaction in women and men and the predictor of a partner’s relationship satisfaction in men. The findings support the partially mediating role of dyadic coping in the association between attachment and relationship satisfaction and are a significant contribution to the issue of dyadic coping in general. Adults’ secure representations of their childhood experiences may be effective in using their partners as a secure base and also in serving as a secure base themselves, but it is not the sole influence on the quality of the couple’s experience together. The we-ness phenomenon and resulting clinical implications were discussed.

The effects of childhood unpredictability and harshness on emotional control and relationship quality: A life history perspective

Being able to control oneself in emotionally upsetting situations is essential for good relationship functioning. According to life history theory, childhood exposure to harshness and unpredictability should forecast diminished emotional control and lower relationship quality. We examined this in three studies. In Studies 1 and 2, greater childhood unpredictability (frequent financial, residential, and familial changes), but not harshness (low SES), was associated with lower emotional control in adolescents (N = 1041) and adults (N = 327). These effects were stronger during the participants' reproductive years. Moreover, in Study 2, greater childhood unpredictability was indirectly associated with lower relationship quality through lower emotional control. In study 3, we leveraged the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (N = 160). Greater early-life unpredictability (ages 0-4) prospectively predicted lower relationship quality at age 32 via lower emotional control at the same age. This relation was serially mediated by less supportive observed early maternal care (ages 1.5-3.5) and insecure attachment representations (ages 19 and 26). Early unpredictability also predicted greater observed emotional distress during conflict interactions with romantic partners (ages 19-36). These findings point to the role of emotional control in mediating the effects of unpredictable childhood environments on relationship functioning in adulthood.

Infants' attachment insecurity predicts attachment-relevant emotion regulation strategies in adulthood

Infant attachment is theorized to lay the foundation of emotion regulation across the life span. However, testing this proposition requires prospective designs examining whether attachment assessed in infancy predicts emotion regulation strategies observed in adult relationships. Using unique data from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation, we examined whether infant attachment assessed at 12 and 18 months in the Strange Situation were associated with attachment-relevant emotion regulation strategies coded from video-recorded conflict discussions with romantic partners at ages 20, 23, 26, and/or 35. The current research first integrated the developmental and emotion regulation literatures to identify three specific attachment-relevant emotion regulation strategies. Balanced-regulation involves being open, approach-orientated, and engaging in collaborative problem-solving. Hypo-regulation involves suppressing emotions, disengaging from close others, and engaging in superficial problem-solving. Hyper-regulation involves exaggerating emotional expressions, ruminating, and being self-focused in processing issues. Compared to stable secure infants (secure at 12 and 18 months), stable insecure infants (insecure at 12 and 18 months) displayed worse balanced-regulation and greater hypo-regulation strategies, and unstable insecure infants (insecure at 12 or 18 months) displayed greater hyper-regulation strategies, in relationship-threatening situations 20-35 years later. Conceptually replicating these results, greater friendship insecurity at age 16 predicted worse balanced-regulation and greater hypo- and hyper-regulation strategies during relationship-threatening situations in adulthood. These findings highlight that infant attachment insecurity is associated with distinct emotion regulation strategies in adulthood 20-35 years later. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Partners’ Attachment Insecurity and Stress Predict Poorer Relationship Functioning During COVID-19 Quarantines

The COVID-19 pandemic presents acute, ongoing relationship challenges. The current research tested how (1) preexisting vulnerabilities assessed prior to the pandemic (attachment insecurity) and (2) stress as couples endured a mandated quarantine predicted residual changes in relationship functioning. Controlling for prequarantine problems, relationship quality, and family environment, greater partners’ attachment anxiety predicted greater relationship problems, lower relationship quality, and a less stable and cohesive family environment when people were experiencing more stress. Greater partners’ attachment avoidance predicted lower problem-solving efficacy and family cohesion. The effects of partners’ preexisting vulnerabilities and pandemic-related stress demonstrate the utility of key models in relationship science in identifying who is at most risk of relationship problems in the unprecedented context of a mandated quarantine. The results emphasize that the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on relationship functioning will be shaped by the characteristics of partners with whom people are confined with during the pandemic.

They May Disapprove, but I Still Love You: Attachment Behaviors Moderate the Effect of Social Disapproval on Marital Relationship Quality

The degree of approval for a relationship from one's social network has been shown to predict relationship outcomes. Additional research has shown that attachment can buffer the negative effects of various factors (e.g., depression) on relationships. Using an actor-partner interdependence model in an SEM framework, we research the effects of disapproval from parents and friends for one's relationship on marital relationship quality for self and partner in a sample of 858 married couples. We also examine whether each spouse's attachment behaviors can moderate these effects. Results indicated that one's own attachment behaviors moderate the effects of their own parents' and friends' disapproval on their self-reported relationship quality for both men and women. Partner's attachment behaviors moderate own friend's disapproval on self-reported relationship quality for men and women; additionally, the main effect of partner's friends' and parents' disapproval became nonsignificant with that test. The findings provide evidence that attachment behaviors of both partners play a role in buffering the negative effects of the social network disapproval on relationship outcomes. Clinical implications are discussed.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SEEKING AND EXCESSIVE REASSURANCE SEEKING BEHAVIOR AND DEPRESSION: A META-ANALYTIC REVIEW

Introduction: Negative feedback seeking and excessive reassurance seeking behaviors in interpersonal relationships have been shown to frequently occur in conjunction with levels of depression.

Method: We used meta-analysis to examine 102 studies (134 effects), relating depression with negative feedback seeking (k = 31) and/or excessive reassurance seeking (k = 103).

Results: Depression had positive, moderate effect sizes with both negative feedback seeking (r = .26, 95% CI [.21, .32], p < .001, k = 31) and excessive reassurance seeking (r = .33, 95% CI [.31, .36] p < .001, k = 103). Subgroup analysis revealed the effect size for negative feedback seeking was smaller in romantic relationships compared to other relationship types. Effect sizes for excessive reassurance seeking did not differ for romantic and other relationships but were smaller in romantic relationships of a longer duration. Participant gender and symptom severity did not moderate effect sizes. Studies with child and adolescent samples had larger effects for negative feedback seeking and smaller effects for excessive reassurance seeking, relative to adult samples.

Discussion: Longer closer relationships may protect against maladaptive interpersonal behaviors in individuals with depression.

A Dyadic Perspective of Felt Security: Does Partners' Security Buffer the Effects of Actors' Insecurity on Daily Commitment?

Interdependence and attachment models have identified felt security as a critical foundation for commitment by orientating individuals towards relationship-promotion rather than self-protection. However, partners' security also signals the relative safety to commit to relationships. The current investigation adopted a dyadic perspective to examine whether partners' security acts as a strong link by buffering the negative effects of actors' insecurity on daily commitment. Across two daily diary studies (Study 1, N = 78 dyads and Study 2, N = 73 dyads), actors' X partners' daily felt security interactions revealed a strong-link pattern: lower actors' felt security on a given day predicted lower daily commitment, but these reductions were mitigated when partners reported higher levels of felt security that day. Actors' X partners' trait insecurity (attachment anxiety) interaction also showed this strong-link pattern in Study 1 but not Study 2. The results suggest that partners' felt security can help individuals experiencing insecurity overcome their self-protective impulses and feel safe enough to commit to their relationship on a daily basis.

Theoretical Boundary Conditions of Partner Buffering in Romantic Relationships

Attachment insecurity is consequential for both personal and relationship wellbeing. Some research has documented that partner buffering can downregulate insecure individuals’ immediate feelings of distress, allowing them to feel more secure at least temporarily. The benefits of partner buffering, however, may be limited by several contextual factors. In this article, we identify boundary conditions that may curb or amplify the benefits of partner buffering for both targets (those who receive buffering) and agents (those who enact buffering). We suggest that motivation, ability, and timing may all affect partner buffering outcomes for targets and agents. If partner buffering is delivered in an adaptive way that does not reinforce the target’s insecure tendencies, it may help insecure targets learn that they can trust and depend on their partners (agents), which may facilitate greater security in targets. We recommend that future research consider these contextual factors and examine partner buffering as an inherently dyadic relationship process capable of enhancing attachment security.

Step Out of Line: Modeling Nonlinear Effects and Dynamics in Close-Relationships Research

Despite widespread acknowledgment that close relationships frequently involve tumultuous and dynamic experiences, most models in relationship psychology focus on linear relationship processes. Modeling nonlinear patterns can, however, be an important way to assess and better understand the complexities inherent in close relationships. In this article, I draw on one of the most widely studied theories in relationship science—attachment theory—to illustrate how modeling nonlinear effects between variables (i.e., curvilinear effects) and nonlinear dynamics across time (i.e., within-person variation and within-dyad flexibility) can reconcile inconsistencies in the literature, reveal unique relationship experiences, and broaden our understanding of complex relationship processes.

I am a rock; I am an island: Implications of avoidant attachment for communal coping in adults with type 2 diabetes

Accumulating evidence indicates that communal coping is beneficial for individuals with chronic illness. The current investigation examined attachment as a moderator of the effects of communal coping in a sample of persons with type 2 diabetes. We hypothesized that patient communal coping would be associated with higher relationship quality, lower distress, and better diabetes outcomes for patients low in avoidant attachment, but it would not be beneficial for patients high in avoidant attachment. Patient communal coping was coded from videotaped interactions in which 86 heterosexual couples discussed difficulties managing diabetes. The results indicated that patient communal coping was beneficial when avoidant attachment was low. When avoidant attachment was high, patient communal coping was related to lower relationship quality and higher distress and was unrelated to diabetes outcomes. This work sheds light on potential boundary conditions of communal coping's benefits, which will be important to consider in future communal coping interventions.

Distinguishing Dismissing From Fearful Attachment in the Association Between Closeness and Commitment

When avoidantly attached individuals are simultaneously high in attachment anxiety, they are inclined to experience strong internal conflicts between seeking and avoiding closeness. This research examined whether the extent to which closeness, assessed as the inclusion of other in the self (IOS), is associated with greater commitment varies within individuals high in attachment avoidance as a result of differences in ambivalence toward maintaining the relationship. In two studies ( N1 = 1,604, N2 = 2,271), we found that the positive association between IOS and commitment was significantly weaker when attachment avoidance was combined with high (vs. low) attachment anxiety. In Study 2, we found lingering relational ambivalence even at high levels of IOS among individuals simultaneously high in attachment avoidance and anxiety, which in turn was related to relatively low commitment. Our findings highlight the role of relational ambivalence in avoidants’ relationship functioning and the need to examine the interplay of the two attachment dimensions.

Attachment styles, social behavior, and personality functioning in romantic relationships

Personality disorders (PDs) are commonly associated with romantic relationship disturbance. However, research has seldom evaluated who people with high PD severity partner with, and what explains the link between PD severity and romantic relationship disturbance. First, we examined the degree to which people match with partners with similar levels of personality and interpersonal problems. Second, we evaluated whether the relationship between PD severity and romantic relationship satisfaction would be explained by attachment styles and demand/withdraw behavior. Couples selected for high PD severity (n = 130; 260 participants) engaged in a conflict task, were assessed for PDs and attachment using semi-structured interviews, and self-reported their relationship satisfaction. Dyad members were not similar in terms of PD severity but evidenced a small degree of similarity on specific attachment styles and were moderately similar on attachment insecurity and interpersonal problems. PD severity also moderated the degree to which one person's attachment anxiety was associated with their partner's attachment avoidance. In addition, using a dyadic analytic approach, we found attachment anxiety and actor and partner withdrawal explained some of the relationship between PD severity and relationship satisfaction. Our results indicate people often have romantic partners with similar levels of attachment disturbance and interpersonal problems and that attachment styles and related behavior explains some of the association between PD severity and relationship satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Attachment insecurity and power regulation in intimate relationships

Power and dependence are fundamental to the development of attachment insecurity and attachment insecurity is central in defining different ways people regulate power. This paper applies an integrated power and attachment perspective to advance understanding of the diverse ways people attempt to negotiate dependence and power in adult relationships. The paper demonstrates how: (1) power is integral to the concerns and goals underlying attachment avoidance and anxiety, (2) the situations that activate attachment strategies represent specific power-relevant concerns and goals, (3) the reactions associated with avoidance and anxiety reflect distinct strategies to regulate dependence and control, and (4) partners counter with their own power regulation attempts. The integrative model presented generates new insights into both power and attachment dynamics.

Walking a security tightrope: relationship-induced changes in attachment security

Little is known about how romantic relationships enhance long-term attachment security. Change is likely to involve revising deep-seated beliefs and expectations regarding one's self as being unworthy and others as untrustworthy (insecure internal working models). When individuals become anxious, partners can provide immediate reassurance, but the path to long-term security may hinge on addressing the individual's insecure self-perceptions; when individuals become avoidant, partners can 'soften' interactions that involve relational give-and-take, but long-term security may hinge on instilling positive associations with interdependence and trust. As described in the Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM), relationships can afford optimal interactions that involve two processes working in tandem: mitigating momentary insecurity, and fostering secure working models over the long-term.

The ebbs and flows of attachment: Within-person variation in attachment undermine secure individuals' relationship wellbeing across time

Although attachment security is relatively stable over time, individuals do experience significant within-person variation in their attachment security across time. No research to date, however, has assessed the relational consequences of within-person variation (fluctuations) in attachment security toward a specific attachment figure. Study 1 (N = 409) first examined whether attachment security was associated with individuals' expectations that their current intimate relationship would be stable and consistent over time (vs. inconsistent and unstable). Studies 2 and 3 extended this by examining the prevalence and consequences of actual within-person variation (fluctuations) in relationship-specific attachment security toward an intimate partner in 2 multiwave longitudinal studies that assessed individuals (Study 2, N = 324) and couples (Study 3, N = 171 dyads). The results indicate that secure individuals (those low in attachment anxiety or attachment avoidance) expect their current relationship to remain relatively stable and consistent over time (Study 1). However, Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated that most individuals do experience fluctuations in their relationship-specific attachment security. Moreover, greater fluctuations predict declines in relationship satisfaction (Studies 2 and 3) and increases in relationship distress (Study 3) over time, but primarily for secure individuals (those low in baseline attachment anxiety or attachment avoidance). This set of findings highlight the importance of examining within-person fluctuations in attachment security, which are associated with declines in trajectories of relationship wellbeing, particularly for secure individuals who anticipate greater stability in their relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record

Revising Working Models Across Time: Relationship Situations That Enhance Attachment Security

We propose the Attachment Security Enhancement Model (ASEM) to suggest how romantic relationships can promote chronic attachment security. One part of the ASEM examines partner responses that protect relationships from the erosive effects of immediate insecurity, but such responses may not necessarily address underlying insecurities in a person's mental models. Therefore, a second part of the ASEM examines relationship situations that foster more secure mental models. Both parts may work in tandem. We posit that attachment anxiety should decline most in situations that foster greater personal confidence and more secure mental models of the self. In contrast, attachment avoidance should decline most in situations that involve positive dependence and foster more secure models of close others. The ASEM integrates research and theory, suggests novel directions for future research, and has practical implications, all of which center on the idea that adult attachment orientations are an emergent property of close relationships.

Perceiving Partners to Endorse Benevolent Sexism Attenuates Highly Anxious Women’s Negative Reactions to Conflict

Benevolent sexism prescribes that men are dependent on women in relationships and should cherish their partners. The current research examined whether perceiving male partners to endorse benevolent sexism attenuates highly anxious women’s negative reactions to relationship conflict. Greater attachment anxiety was associated with greater distress and insecurity during couples’ conflict discussions (Study 1), during daily conflict with intimate partners (Study 2), and when recalling experiences of relationship conflict (Study 3). However, this heightened distress and insecurity was attenuated when women (but not men) perceived their partner to strongly endorse benevolent sexism (Studies 1-3) and thus believed their partner could be relied upon to remain invested (Study 3B). These novel results illustrate that perceiving partners to endorse benevolent sexism alleviates anxious women’s insecure reactions to relationship threat by conveying partner’s continued reliability. Implications of these security-enhancing effects are considered in light of the role benevolent sexism plays in sustaining gender inequality.

Repairing Distance and Facilitating Support: Reassurance Seeking by Highly Avoidant Individuals Is Associated With Greater Closeness and Partner Support

The interpersonal consequences of reassurance seeking may depend on who is seeking reassurance. This research examined whether greater reassurance seeking during couples' support-relevant discussions was associated with greater partner support when enacted by more avoidant individuals who typically minimize dependence in their relationships. Three dyadic studies (N= 246 couples) demonstrated that the interpersonal effects of reassurance seeking were moderated by attachment avoidance. Greater reassurance seeking repaired the lack of closeness thatpartnersof highly avoidant individuals typically feel (Study 3), and these partners, in turn, provided more support across studies. In contrast, greater reassurance seeking by less avoidant individuals was associated withpartnersfeeling less close (Study 3), but was not associated with partners' support across studies. These results provide the first evidence that reassurance seeking during support-relevant interactions can repair distance and facilitate support, but these positive interpersonal effects occur when reassurance seekers are high in attachment avoidance.