1
|
Felig RN, Courtney EP, Ligman KM, Lee KJ, Goldenberg JL. Objects Do Not Suffer: An Impact of Mechanistic Dehumanization on Perceptions of Women's Suffering and Lack of Justice in Domestic Assault. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2024; 39:1245-1267. [PMID: 37815050 DOI: 10.1177/08862605231204897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Women constitute an overwhelming majority of those who experience domestic violence; furthermore, the vast majority of perpetrators of domestic violence go unsentenced. The objectification of women innately implies the denial of humanness, and dehumanization is known to play a role in willingness to engage in and acceptance of interpersonal harm. Yet, important questions remain. The current study examines the type of humanness objectified women are being denied, and how that denial implicates perceptions surrounding domestic assault. We predict that associating women with objects, and not animals, may be uniquely implicated in the lack of consequences for perpetrators-for objects cannot feel pain. In the current study (N = 319), we manipulated the presentation of a woman as sexualized or not and purported that she had been involved in a domestic violence incident. We found that when the target woman was sexualized (and thus objectified), participants associated her with an inert, non-human object (i.e., mechanistically dehumanized her) more than when she was not sexually objectified, but we found no effect of sexualization on animalistic dehumanization. Furthermore, mechanistic dehumanization mediated decreases in perceptions of the sexually objectified woman's suffering as a result of the domestic violence, which decreased the severity of the punishment participants recommended for the perpetrator, while also, increasing victim, and decreasing perpetrator, blame. We discuss critical considerations of the role of dehumanization in domestic violence directed toward women and the lack of consequences for perpetrators of these crimes.
Collapse
|
2
|
Hu Y, Pan Y, Yue L, Gao X. Self-objectification and eating disorders: the psychopathological and neural processes from psychological distortion to psychosomatic illness. PSYCHORADIOLOGY 2024; 4:kkae003. [PMID: 38666139 PMCID: PMC10946225 DOI: 10.1093/psyrad/kkae003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Yinying Hu
- Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China
| | - Yafeng Pan
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
- The State Key Lab of Brain-Machine Intelligence, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejaing 310058, China
| | - Liming Yue
- Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China
| | - Xiangping Gao
- Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China
- Shanghai Institute of Early Childhood Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, Shanghai 200234, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cogoni C, Monachesi B, Mazza V, Grecucci A, Vaes J. Neural dynamics of vicarious physical pain processing reflect impaired empathy toward sexually objectified versus non-sexually objectified women. Psychophysiology 2023; 60:e14400. [PMID: 37578333 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Sexually objectified women are perceived as dehumanized. This may affect the behavioral and neural responses underlying the observer's empathic reactions for their physical pain, although this hypothesis still lacks empirical support. In the present study, we measured the electrophysiological activity of 30 participants (14 females and 16 males), in an empathy for physical pain paradigm in which pictures of sexualized and non-sexualized women were presented in painful and non-painful situations. The behavioral results revealed that sexualized women were evaluated as experiencing less pain than non-sexualized women. Neural evidence corroborated this finding showing that the perception of vicarious physical pain is lacking for sexualized women in both event-related potentials (ERPs) and brain oscillation domains. Specifically, the P2 component and the event-related synchronization/desynchronization (ERS/ERD) on the mu frequency band differed between painful and non-painful stimulation exclusively when women were not sexualized. Our results provide the first evidence that the neurophysiological responses to the vicarious experience of physical pain are dampened or even absent for sexualized women. These findings expand our understanding of the neurophysiological signatures of empathic processes and highlight the detrimental effect of a sexual-objectification bias in everyday contexts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Cogoni
- Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Bianca Monachesi
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Veronica Mazza
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Alessandro Grecucci
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Jeroen Vaes
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Sciences, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Balters S, Foland-Ross LC, Bruno J, Periyakoil VS, Valantine H, Reiss AL. Neural responses to gender-based microaggressions in academic medicine. J Neurosci Res 2023; 101:1803-1813. [PMID: 37654210 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Gender-based microaggressions have been associated with persistent disparities between women and men in academia. Little is known about the neural mechanisms underlying those often subtle and unintentional yet detrimental behaviors. Here, we assessed the neural responses to gender-based microaggressions in 28 early career faculty in medicine (N = 16 female, N = 12 male sex) using fMRI. Participants watched 33 videos of situations demonstrating gender-based microaggressions and control situations in academic medicine. Video topics had been previously identified through real-life anecdotes about microaggression from women faculty and were scripted and reenacted using professional actors. Primary voxel-wise analyses comparing group differences in activation elucidated a significant group by condition interaction in a right-lateralized cluster across the frontal (inferior and middle frontal gyri, frontal pole, precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus) and parietal lobes (supramarginal gyrus, angular gyrus). Whereas women faculty exhibited reduced activation in these regions during the microaggression relative to the control condition, the opposite was true for men. Posthoc analyses showed that these patterns were significantly associated with the degree to which participants reported feeling judged for their gender in academic medicine. Lastly, secondary exploratory ROI analyses showed significant between-group differences in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus. Women activated these two regions less in the microaggression condition compared to the control condition, whereas men did not. These findings indicate that the observation of gender-based microaggressions results in a specific pattern of neural reactivity in women early career faculty.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Balters
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Lara C Foland-Ross
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Jennifer Bruno
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Vyjeyanthi S Periyakoil
- Department of Primary Care and Population Health, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Hannah Valantine
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Allan L Reiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Teresa A. Direct and Indirect Roles of Men in Determining Women Decision to Use Laser Procedures for Skin Care. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2023; 16:617-633. [PMID: 36936751 PMCID: PMC10019343 DOI: 10.2147/ccid.s398685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
Laser procedures for skin care is becoming increasingly popular and used by the global community and affect many aspects of human life. However, there is very little research on the role of men in women's decision to follow this dermatological procedure. This study aimed to identify the role of men in motivating women to choose laser-based procedure. A systematic literature review research design was applied in this study. A total of 27 papers were obtained by searching PubMed Central for the 2013-2022 editions. The extraction of samples and the motivation of patients or research respondents in choosing laser procedures for cosmetic treatments were conducted to obtain clues about the role of men in making these decisions. Only six studies explicitly reveal the role of men as motivators of women to perform laser-based dermatological procedures. Four of these six studies were conducted in Asia in countries with a high degree of collectivism. The remaining two studies reveal a minor role for men in women's motivation to choose dermatological procedures. Other studies only indirectly implicate the role of men through intrasexual competition, increased self-esteem, and the needs of the world of work. Limitations of the study lies in the non-specificity of the study sample in the female population, laser-based treatments, and the role of men in motivating women. The role of men in motivating women to perform laser-based skin care procedures is stated explicitly in collectivist cultures while only implicitly in individualist cultures. These findings indicate that the strategy of utilizing the added value of men to laser treatment procedures should be directed at the relationship between men and women in real terms in collective cultured countries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Teresa
- Medical Faculty, Palangka Raya University, Palangka Raya, Indonesia
- Correspondence: Astrid Teresa, Kampus UPR, Jalan Yos Sudarso, Palangka Raya, Central Kalimantan, 73111, Indonesia, Email
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kimmig ACS, Wildgruber D, Gärtner A, Drotleff B, Krylova M, Lämmerhofer M, Sundström-Poromaa I, Derntl B. Lower affective empathy in oral contraceptive users: a cross-sectional fMRI study. Cereb Cortex 2022; 33:4319-4333. [PMID: 36137568 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence accumulates that oral contraceptive (OC) use modulates various socio-affective behaviors, including empathic abilities. Endogenous and synthetic sex hormones, such as estrogens and progestogens, bind to receptor sites in brain regions (i.e. frontal, limbic, and cerebellar) involved in socio-affective processing. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of OC use in empathy. In a cross-sectional functional magnetic resonance imaging study, women in different hormonal states, including OC use (n = 46) or being naturally cycling in the early follicular (fNC: n = 37) or peri-ovulatory phase (oNC: n = 28), performed a visual, sentence-based empathy task. Behaviorally, OC users had lower empathy ratings than oNC women. Congruently, whole-brain analysis revealed significantly larger task-related activation of several brain regions, including the left dorsomedial prefrontal gyrus (dmPFG), left precentral gyrus, and left temporoparietal junction in oNC compared to OC women. In OC users, the activity of the left dmPFG and precentral gyrus was negatively associated with behavioral and self-reported affective empathy. Furthermore, empathy-related region-of-interest analysis indicated negative associations of brain activation with synthetic hormone levels in OC women. Overall, this multimodal, cross-sectional investigation of empathy suggests a role of OC intake in especially affective empathy and highlights the importance of including synthetic hormone levels in OC-related analyses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Christin Sophie Kimmig
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health (TüCMH), University of Tübingen, Calwerstr. 14, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.,Graduate Training Centre of Neuroscience, International Max Planck Research School, University of Tübingen, Ottfried-Müller-Str. 27, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dirk Wildgruber
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health (TüCMH), University of Tübingen, Calwerstr. 14, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anna Gärtner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health (TüCMH), University of Tübingen, Calwerstr. 14, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bernhard Drotleff
- Department of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical (Bio-)Analysis, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Marina Krylova
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Jena University Hospital, Philosophenweg 3, 07743 Jena, Germany.,Department of Radiology, Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Medical Physics Group, Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Lämmerhofer
- Department of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical (Bio-)Analysis, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Inger Sundström-Poromaa
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Uppsala, Akademiska sjukhuset, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Birgit Derntl
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen Center for Mental Health (TüCMH), University of Tübingen, Calwerstr. 14, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.,LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Europastraße 6, 72072 Tübingen Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Spaccatini F, Pacilli MG, Pagliaro S, Giovannelli I. Victim blaming 2.0: blaming sexualized victims of online harassment lowers bystanders’ helping intentions. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-02884-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
8
|
Sáez G, Riemer AR, Brock RL, Gervais SJ. The Role of Interpersonal Sexual Objectification in Heterosexual Intimate Partner Violence From Perspectives of Perceivers and Targets. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2022; 37:1430-1455. [PMID: 32468928 DOI: 10.1177/0886260520922348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sexual objectification is a subtle manifestation of sexist discrimination and violence against women that involves seeing and treating women as sex objects of male sexual desire. The primary aim of this research was to connect sexual objectification experiences with heterosexual intimate partner violence. This set of studies examined the impact of sexual objectification on intimate partner violence for both the female victim (Study 1) and the male perpetrator (Study 2). Female (Study 1) and male (Study 2) participants were asked to rate the extent they are victims or perpetrators of sexual objectification experiences and intimate partner violence. Moreover, women's self-silencing and men's ascriptions of humanity and empathy (through empathic concern and perspective taking) toward their partner was assessed. The results of the first study (including 154 heterosexual women) showed that general sexual objectification victimization indirectly leads to higher psychological and physical violence through the internalization of self-silence schemas. The second study (including 165 heterosexual men) demonstrated a link between general sexual objectification perpetration and psychological and physical intimate partner violence. Moreover, the relation between men's perpetration of objectification and intimate partner violence was mediated by ascriptions of humanity and empathic concern toward their female partner (but not through perspective taking toward her). Results of both studies demonstrate the effect of sexual objectification (as target or perpetrator) on global intimate partner violence and explain the different psychological mechanisms through which it takes place depending on the gendered perspective. Theoretical implications and practical considerations for interventions on intimate partner violence are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Sáez
- Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Sevilla, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kor A, Djalovski A, Potenza MN, Zagoory-Sharon O, Feldman R. Alterations in oxytocin and vasopressin in men with problematic pornography use: The role of empathy. J Behav Addict 2022; 11:116-127. [PMID: 35040806 PMCID: PMC9109630 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2021.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Addictive behaviors share clinical, genetic, neurobiological and phenomenological parallels with substance addictions. Despite the prevalence of compulsive sexual behaviors, particularly problematic pornography use (PPU), how neuroendocrine systems relate to PPU is not well understood. Preclinical studies demonstrate alterations in oxytocin and arginine vasopressin (AVP) function in animal models of addiction, but no human study has tested their involvement in PPU. METHOD Participants included 122 males; 69 reported PPU, and 53 were demographically-matched participants without PPU. Plasma oxytocin and AVP levels and oxytocin-to-AVP balance were measured at baseline. Salivary oxytocin was assessed at baseline and in response to four videos depicting neutral/positive social encounters. Participants reported on empathy and psychiatric symptoms. RESULTS Baseline plasma AVP levels were elevated in men with PPU, and the ratio of oxytocin-to-vasopressin suggested AVP dominance. Men with PPU reacted with greater oxytocin increases to presentation of neutral/positive social stimuli. Decreased empathic tendencies were found in men with PPU, and this reduced empathy mediated links between oxytocin and pornography-related hypersexuality. Structural equation modeling revealed three independent paths to pornography-related hypersexuality; two direct paths via increased AVP and higher psychiatric symptoms and one indirect path from oxytocin to pornography-related hypersexuality mediated by diminished empathy. CONCLUSIONS Findings are among the first to implicate neuropeptides sustaining mammalian attachment in the pathophysiology of pornography-related hypersexuality and describe a neurobiological mechanism by which oxytocin-AVP systems and psychiatric symptomatology may operate to reduce empathy and lead to pornography-related hypersexuality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ariel Kor
- Interdisciplinary Center, Herzlia, Israel
| | - Amir Djalovski
- Center for Developmental Social Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Center, Herzlia, Israel
| | - Marc N. Potenza
- Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA,Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling, Wethersfield, CT, USA,Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Orna Zagoory-Sharon
- Center for Developmental Social Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Center, Herzlia, Israel
| | - Ruth Feldman
- Interdisciplinary Center, Herzlia, Israel,Center for Developmental Social Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Center, Herzlia, Israel,Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA,Corresponding author. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
The Sexual OBjectification and EMotion database: A free stimulus set and norming data of sexually objectified and non-objectified female targets expressing multiple emotions. Behav Res Methods 2021; 54:541-555. [PMID: 34291433 PMCID: PMC9046321 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01640-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Sexual objectification - perceiving or treating a woman as a sexual object - is a widespread phenomenon. Studies on sexual objectification and its consequences have grown dramatically over the last decades covering multiple and diverse areas of research. However, research studying sexual objectification might have limited internal and external validity due to the lack of a controlled and standardized picture database. Moreover, there is a need to extend this research to other fields including the study of emotions. Therefore, in this paper we introduce the SOBEM Database, a free tool consisting of 280 high-resolution pictures depicting objectified and non-objectified female models expressing a neutral face and three different emotions (happiness, anger, and sadness) with different intensity. We report the validation of this dataset by analyzing results of 134 participants judging pictures on the six basic emotions and on a range of social judgments related to sexual objectification. Results showed how the SOBEM can constitute an appropriate instrument to study both sexual objectification per se and its relation with emotions. This database could therefore become an important instrument able to improve the experimental control in future studies on sexual objectification and to create new links with different fields of research.
Collapse
|
11
|
Kellie DJ, Blake KR, Brooks RC. Behind the makeup: The effects of cosmetics on women's self‐objectification, and their objectification by others. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dax J. Kellie
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia
| | - Khandis R. Blake
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences University of Melbourne Melbourne 3011 Australia
| | - Robert C. Brooks
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre University of New South Wales Sydney 2052 Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Bernard P, De Laet M, Gervais SJ. Is body inversion effect a valid measure of women's objectification? Yes, it is! PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.110708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
13
|
Dettmer S, Wenzel A, Trenkwalder T, Tiefenbacher C, Regitz-Zagrosek V. Gender and career in cardiology-a cross-sectional study. Herz 2021; 46:150-157. [PMID: 33599803 DOI: 10.1007/s00059-021-05027-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The proportion of women as leading physicians in cardiology in university medicine has stagnated and the share of women in senior positions in cardiology is low compared with other medical specialist fields. Here, we analyze the typical barriers for women as doctors in cardiology and point to issues that make the discipline less attractive for both genders. METHODS In a cross-sectional study, a standardized online questionnaire was sent to 3873 members of the German Cardiac Society (DGK). Answers from 567 (278 women, 289 men) were analyzed, using comparisons between groups, correlation analyses, and tests of normal distribution. RESULTS For 47.4% of respondents (52.0%, of women; 42.8%, of men; p = 0.049), training had lasted longer than anticipated. Average monthly gross income (full-time work) differed significantly between women and men as specialists (p = 0.004) and assistant doctors (p = 0.030). Of women, 32.1% had experienced sexual harassment in the workplace. The main arguments against a career in university medicine were an extremely competitive working climate (66.7% of women, 63.2% of men), lack of work-life balance (66.7% women, 55.3% men), and excessive workload (57.8% women, 62.5% men). As strategies to increase job attractiveness, both mentioned measures to improve the work-life balance, and the flexibility of working times and improved financial provision. Women asked for gender balance at management level (76.3% vs. 32.9% of men) and opportunities for sharing management tasks (82.4% vs. 57.9%). Flatter hierarchies were requested by more men (67.1 vs. 54.8%). CONCLUSION Further development of the work culture in cardiology seems necessary. In order to increase the attractiveness of the field overall and to provide equal opportunities in cardiology, more targeted support should be provided to young doctors and more flexibility introduced into work.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Dettmer
- Institute for Medical Sociology and Rehabilitation Research, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Arlett Wenzel
- Institute for Medical Sociology and Rehabilitation Research, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Teresa Trenkwalder
- Deutsches Herzzentrum München, Klinik für Herz- und Kreislauferkrankungen, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Vera Regitz-Zagrosek
- Gender in Medicine (GiM), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hessische Str. 3-4, 10115, Berlin, Germany. .,Department of Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Mwilambwe-Tshilobo L, Spreng RN. Social exclusion reliably engages the default network: A meta-analysis of Cyberball. Neuroimage 2020; 227:117666. [PMID: 33359341 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Social exclusion refers to the experience of being disregarded or rejected by others and has wide-ranging negative consequences for well-being and cognition. Cyberball, a game where a ball is virtually tossed between players, then leads to the exclusion of the research participant, is a common method used to examine the experience of social exclusion. The neural correlates of social exclusion remain a topic of debate, particularly with regards to the role of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the concept of social pain. Here we conducted a quantitative meta-analysis using activation likelihood estimation (ALE) to identify brain activity reliably engaged by social exclusion during Cyberball task performance (Studies = 53; total N = 1,817 participants). Results revealed consistent recruitment in ventral anterior cingulate and posterior cingulate cortex, inferior and superior frontal gyri, posterior insula, and occipital pole. No reliable activity was observed in dACC. Using a probabilistic atlas to define dACC, fewer than 15% of studies reported peak coordinates in dACC. Meta-analytic connectivity mapping suggests patterns of co-activation are consistent with the topography of the default network. Reverse inference for cognition associated with reliable Cyberball activity computed in Neurosynth revealed social exclusion to be associated with cognitive terms Social, Autobiographical, Mental States, and Theory of Mind. Taken together, these findings highlight the role of the default network in social exclusion and warns against interpretations of the dACC as a key region involved in the experience of social exclusion in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Mwilambwe-Tshilobo
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, Montreal Neurological Institute, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| | - R Nathan Spreng
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, Montreal Neurological Institute, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Verdun, QC, Canada; McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
AbstractMedia that sexually objectify women by portraying them in ways that emphasize physical beauty and sexual readiness as well as reduce them to decorative and sexual objects have been traditionally identified by scholars as a powerful cultural risk factor encouraging sexual harassment and sexual violence. In the present article we review the existing empirical evidence linking sexually objectifying media and sexual harassment of women to the overarching and integrative Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework. This framework offers a coherent scheme for explaining the effects of sexually objectifying media on three target groups directly involved in sexual harassment—perpetrators, victims, and bystanders—and it postulates three cognitive and emotional mechanisms through which sexually objectifying media lead to sexual harassment: dehumanization, disruption of emphatic resonance, and a shift in gender norms. The evidence reviewed on the basis of the Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework shows that sexually objectifying media converge in normalizing harassing behaviors and can be a causal risk factor for increasing engagement in sexual harassment, heightening victims’ acceptance of sexual harassment and discouraging bystander intervention. We discuss implications of these arguments for effectively preventing negative effects of exposure to sexually objectifying media and for education programs aimed at critical media-consumption.
Collapse
|
16
|
Cogoni C, Carnaghi A, Silani G. Reduced shared emotional representations toward women revealing more skin. Cogn Emot 2020; 35:225-240. [PMID: 32998646 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2020.1826409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Extensive experimental research has been conducted to investigate how individuals empathise with others depending on contextual and motivational factors. However, the effect of sexual objectification (i.e. focus on the individual's physical appearance over his/her mental state) on empathy is scarce at best thus far. The aim of this work is to shed light on whether objectification modulates empathic responses toward humans and human-like objects. In Experiment 1, participants either underwent visuo-tactile stimulation or witnessed another person (a mannequin, a sexualized or a non-sexualized female confederate) being stimulated with pleasant or unpleasant objects. Participants were then asked to report either their own or the other's emotional experience. Results showed that shared representations (i.e. similarity between self-other emotional ratings) are significantly lower for the mannequin, intermediate for the sexualized woman, and reach the highest values for the non-sexualized woman. In Experiment 2, shared representations were assessed during a ball-tossing game in which the participants or one of the two confederates (sexualized or non-sexualized woman) were excluded from the game. Again, results showed reduced similarity between self-other emotional ratings toward sexualized as compared to non-sexualized women. The findings suggest that interacting with sexually objectified women reduces empathic responses typically observed within human relations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Cogoni
- Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.,Neuroscience Sector, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, Trieste, Italy
| | - Andrea Carnaghi
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Giorgia Silani
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bernard P, Cogoni C, Carnaghi A. The Sexualization–Objectification Link: Sexualization Affects the Way People See and Feel Toward Others. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/0963721419898187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent research has examined the sexualization–objectification link (i.e., whether sexualized individuals are appraised as if they were objects rather than persons). This research has found that sexualized individuals are more likely to be processed and categorized as if they were objects and are also perceived as possessing fewer humanlike traits than nonsexualized individuals. In addition, sexualization prompts negative behaviors such as social exclusion. Altogether, these findings shed light on mechanisms that might underlie violence toward sexualized individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Bernard
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles
| | - Carlotta Cogoni
- Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon
| | - Andrea Carnaghi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Della Vita, Università Degli Studi di Trieste
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wang W, Zhornitsky S, Chao HH, Levy I, Joormann J, Li CSR. The effects of age on cerebral responses to self-initiated actions during social interactions: An exploratory study. Behav Brain Res 2019; 378:112301. [PMID: 31644928 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Self-initiated action is critical to social interaction and individuals with social anxiety find it particularly difficult to initiate social interactions. We showed earlier that social exclusion encumbered self-initiated actions in the Cyberball task in young adults. Here, we examined whether the behavioral performance and regional responses during self-initiated actions vary with age in 53 participants (21-74 years; 27 men). Behaviorally, participants were slower in tossing the ball during exclusion (EX) than during fair game (FG) sessions in both men and women. In women but not in men the reaction time (RT) burden (RT_EX - RT_FG; RT prolonged during social exclusion) of ball toss was positively correlated with age despite no observed sex difference in Social Interaction Anxiety Scale scores. The pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, thalamus, left occipital cortex (OC) and left insula/orbitofrontal cortex responded to ball toss in EX vs. FG in negative correlation with age in women but not in men. Further, the activation of left OC fully mediated the relationship between age and RT burden in women. Thus, older women are more encumbered in self-initiated action during social exclusion, although this behavioral burden is not reflected in subjective reports of social anxiety. Age-related diminution in OC activities may reflect the neural processes underlying the difficulty in initiating social interactions in women. Together, the findings identified age-sensitive behavioral and neural processes of self-initiated action in the Cyberball task and suggest the importance of considering age and sex differences in studies of social interaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wuyi Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06519, United States
| | - Simon Zhornitsky
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06519, United States
| | - Herta H Chao
- Department of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States; VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT 06516, United States
| | - Ifat Levy
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States
| | - Jutta Joormann
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States
| | - Chiang-Shan R Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06519, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kellie DJ, Blake KR, Brooks RC. What drives female objectification? An investigation of appearance-based interpersonal perceptions and the objectification of women. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0221388. [PMID: 31442260 PMCID: PMC6707629 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research finds that both men and women perceive sexualized women as lacking in certain human qualities such as mental capacity and moral status. The mechanism underlying this effect, however, is unclear. The present two studies test how appearance-based judgements affect the degree to which a broad sample of women are objectified. In Study 1 (N = 279), full-body images of women wearing different clothing outfits were rated by male and female participants on perceived attractiveness, sexual intent and age. In Study 2, male and female participants (N = 1,695) viewed these same images from Study 1 and rated them on two dimensions of objectification (agency and patiency). We analyzed associations between these dimensions of objectification and the averaged appearance-based perceptions from Study 1. We find that women perceived as more open to casual sex are attributed less mental capacity and less moral status. We also find that participants tend to associate attractiveness with greater mental and moral status in women, but we find only limited evidence that perceived age influences objectification. Our findings suggest that although positive attractiveness biases may mitigate the amount a woman is objectified, greater female objectification may be prompted by observers' negative stereotypes of promiscuous women.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dax J. Kellie
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Khandis R. Blake
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Robert C. Brooks
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Sáez G, Riemer AR, Brock RL, Gervais SJ. Objectification in Heterosexual Romantic Relationships: Examining Relationship Satisfaction of Female Objectification Recipients and Male Objectifying Perpetrators. SEX ROLES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0990-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
|
21
|
Bareket O, Shnabel N, Abeles D, Gervais S, Yuval-Greenberg S. Evidence for an Association between Men’s Spontaneous Objectifying Gazing Behavior and their Endorsement of Objectifying Attitudes toward Women. SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0983-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
22
|
Xie J, Yang H, Xia X, Yu S. The Influence of Medical Professional Knowledge on Empathy for Pain: Evidence From fNIRS. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1089. [PMID: 30065674 PMCID: PMC6057108 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Empathy is a mental ability that allows one person to understand the mental and emotional state of another and determines how to effectively respond to that person. When a person receives cues that another person is in pain, neural pain circuits within the brain are activated. Studies have shown that compared with non-medical staff, medical practitioners present lower empathy for pain in medical scenarios, but the mechanism of this phenomenon remains in dispute. This work investigates whether the neural correlates of empathic processes of pain are altered by professional medical knowledge. The participants were 16 medical students who were enrolled at a Chinese medical college and 16 non-medical students who were enrolled at a normal university. Participants were scanned by functional near-infrared spectroscopy while watching pictures of medical scenarios that were either painful or neutral situations. Subjects were asked to evaluate the pain intensity supposedly felt by the model in the stimulus displays, and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index-C (IRI-C) questionnaire was used to measure the empathic ability of participants. The results showed that there is no significant difference between medical professional and non-medical professional subjects in IRI-C questionnaire scores. The subjects of medical professions rated the pain degree of medical pictures significantly lower than those of non-medical professions. The activation areas in non-medical subjects were mainly located in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, frontal polar regions, posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, supplementary somatosensory cortex and angular gyrus, whereas there was a wide range of activation in the prefrontal lobe region in addition to the somatosensory cortex in medical professionals. These results indicate that the process of pain empathy in medical settings is influenced by medical professional knowledge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jingdan Xie
- International Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Haibo Yang
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaokai Xia
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shengyuan Yu
- International Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Understanding the mechanisms behind the sexualized-body inversion hypothesis: The role of asymmetry and attention biases. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193944. [PMID: 29621249 PMCID: PMC5886406 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A controversial hypothesis, named the Sexualized Body Inversion Hypothesis (SBIH), claims similar visual processing of sexually objectified women (i.e., with a focus on the sexual body parts) and inanimate objects as indicated by an absence of the inversion effect for both type of stimuli. The current study aims at shedding light into the mechanisms behind the SBIH in a series of 4 experiments. Using a modified version of Bernard et al.´s (2012) visual-matching task, first we tested the core assumption of the SBIH, namely that a similar processing style occurs for sexualized human bodies and objects. In Experiments 1 and 2 a non-sexualized (personalized) condition plus two object-control conditions (mannequins, and houses) were included in the experimental design. Results showed an inversion effect for images of personalized women and mannequins, but not for sexualized women and houses. Second, we explored whether this effect was driven by differences in stimulus asymmetry, by testing the mediating and moderating role of this visual feature. In Experiment 3, we provided the first evidence that not only the sexual attributes of the images but also additional perceptual features of the stimuli, such as their asymmetry, played a moderating role in shaping the inversion effect. Lastly, we investigated the strategy adopted in the visual-matching task by tracking eye movements of the participants. Results of Experiment 4 suggest an association between a specific pattern of visual exploration of the images and the presence of the inversion effect. Findings are discussed with respect to the literature on sexual objectification.
Collapse
|