1
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Bruštíková K, Ryabchenko B, Žáčková S, Šroller V, Forstová J, Horníková L. Mouse polyomavirus infection induces lamin reorganisation. FEBS J 2024; 291:5133-5155. [PMID: 39288210 PMCID: PMC11616003 DOI: 10.1111/febs.17275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 09/06/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
The nuclear lamina is a dense network of intermediate filaments beneath the inner nuclear membrane. Composed of A-type lamins (lamin A/C) and B-type lamins (lamins B1 and B2), the nuclear lamina provides a scaffold for the nuclear envelope and chromatin, thereby maintaining the structural integrity of the nucleus. A-type lamins are also found inside the nucleus where they interact with chromatin and participate in gene regulation. Viruses replicating in the cell nucleus have to overcome the nuclear envelope during the initial phase of infection and during the nuclear egress of viral progeny. Here, we focused on the role of lamins in the replication cycle of a dsDNA virus, mouse polyomavirus. We detected accumulation of the major capsid protein VP1 at the nuclear periphery, defects in nuclear lamina staining and different lamin A/C phosphorylation patterns in the late phase of mouse polyomavirus infection, but the nuclear envelope remained intact. An absence of lamin A/C did not affect the formation of replication complexes but did slow virus propagation. Based on our findings, we propose that the nuclear lamina is a scaffold for replication complex formation and that lamin A/C has a crucial role in the early phases of infection with mouse polyomavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateřina Bruštíková
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, BIOCEV, Faculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | - Boris Ryabchenko
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, BIOCEV, Faculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | - Sandra Žáčková
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, BIOCEV, Faculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
- Present address:
Virology Department, Institute of Organic Chemistry and BiochemistryCzech Academy of SciencesPragueCzech Republic
| | - Vojtěch Šroller
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, BIOCEV, Faculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | - Jitka Forstová
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, BIOCEV, Faculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | - Lenka Horníková
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, BIOCEV, Faculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
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2
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Moschonas GD, Delhaye L, Cooreman R, Hüsers F, Bhat A, Stylianidou Z, De Bousser E, De Pryck L, Grzesik H, De Sutter D, Parthoens E, De Smet AS, Maciejczuk A, Lippens S, Callewaert N, Vandekerckhove L, Debyser Z, Sodeik B, Eyckerman S, Saelens X. MX2 forms nucleoporin-comprising cytoplasmic biomolecular condensates that lure viral capsids. Cell Host Microbe 2024; 32:1705-1724.e14. [PMID: 39389033 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2024.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 10/12/2024]
Abstract
Human myxovirus resistance 2 (MX2) can restrict HIV-1 and herpesviruses at a post-entry step through a process requiring an interaction between MX2 and the viral capsids. The involvement of other host cell factors, however, remains poorly understood. Here, we mapped the proximity interactome of MX2, revealing strong enrichment of phenylalanine-glycine (FG)-rich proteins related to the nuclear pore complex as well as proteins that are part of cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein granules. MX2 interacted with these proteins to form multiprotein cytoplasmic biomolecular condensates that were essential for its anti-HIV-1 and anti-herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) activity. MX2 condensate formation required the disordered N-terminal region and MX2 dimerization. Incoming HIV-1 and HSV-1 capsids associated with MX2 at these dynamic cytoplasmic biomolecular condensates, preventing nuclear entry of their viral genomes. Thus, MX2 forms cytoplasmic condensates that likely act as nuclear pore decoys, trapping capsids and inducing premature viral genome release to interfere with nuclear targeting of HIV-1 and HSV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- George D Moschonas
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Louis Delhaye
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Robin Cooreman
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Franziska Hüsers
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany; RESIST-Cluster of Excellence, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Anayat Bhat
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Zoe Stylianidou
- HIV Cure Research Center, Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Elien De Bousser
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laure De Pryck
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Cancer Research Institute Ghent (CRIG), Ghent, Belgium
| | - Hanna Grzesik
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Delphine De Sutter
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Eef Parthoens
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 71, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; VIB BioImaging Core, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anne-Sophie De Smet
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Aleksandra Maciejczuk
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Saskia Lippens
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 71, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; VIB BioImaging Core, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Nico Callewaert
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Linos Vandekerckhove
- HIV Cure Research Center, Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Zeger Debyser
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Beate Sodeik
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany; RESIST-Cluster of Excellence, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany; DZIF-German Centre for Infection Research, Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sven Eyckerman
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Xavier Saelens
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 75, 9052 Ghent, Belgium.
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3
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Döhner K, Serrero MC, Viejo-Borbolla A, Sodeik B. A Hitchhiker's Guide Through the Cell: The World According to the Capsids of Alphaherpesviruses. Annu Rev Virol 2024; 11:215-238. [PMID: 38954634 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-virology-100422-022751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
The nucleoplasm, the cytosol, the inside of virions, and again the cytosol comprise the world in which the capsids of alphaherpesviruses encounter viral and host proteins that support or limit them in performing their tasks. Here, we review the fascinating conundrum of how specific protein-protein interactions late in alphaherpesvirus infection orchestrate capsid nuclear assembly, nuclear egress, and cytoplasmic envelopment, but target incoming capsids to the nuclear pores in naive cells to inject the viral genomes into the nucleoplasm for viral transcription and replication. Multiple capsid interactions with viral and host proteins have been characterized using viral mutants and assays that reconstitute key stages of the infection cycle. Keratinocytes, fibroblasts, mucosal epithelial cells, neurons, and immune cells employ cell type-specific intrinsic and cytokine-induced resistance mechanisms to restrict several stages of the viral infection cycle. However, concomitantly, alphaherpesviruses have evolved countermeasures to ensure efficient capsid function during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katinka Döhner
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- RESIST Cluster of Excellence, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany;
| | - Manutea Christophe Serrero
- Department of Biomedicine and Center for Immunology of Viral Infections, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- RESIST Cluster of Excellence, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany;
| | - Abel Viejo-Borbolla
- RESIST Cluster of Excellence, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany;
| | - Beate Sodeik
- DZIF German Centre for Infection Research, Partner Site Hannover-Braunschweig, Hannover, Germany
- RESIST Cluster of Excellence, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany;
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4
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Serrero MC, Paludan SR. Restriction factors regulating human herpesvirus infections. Trends Immunol 2024; 45:662-677. [PMID: 39198098 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2024.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2024] [Revised: 07/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 09/01/2024]
Abstract
Herpesviruses are DNA viruses and the cause of diseases ranging from mild skin conditions to severe brain diseases. Mammalian antiviral host defense comprises an array of mechanisms, including restriction factors (RFs), which block specific steps in viral replication cycles. In recent years, knowledge of RFs that contribute to controlling herpesvirus infections has expanded significantly, along with a new understanding of viral evasion mechanisms and disease pathogenesis. By integrating findings from human genetics, murine models, and cellular studies, this review provides a current view of RF control of herpesvirus infections. We also explore the regulation of RF expression, discuss the roles of RFs in diseases, and point towards their growing potential as candidate therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manutea C Serrero
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Center for Immunology of Viral Infections, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Søren R Paludan
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; Center for Immunology of Viral Infections, Aarhus, Denmark.
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5
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Zeitvogel J, Döhner K, Klug I, Richardo T, Sodeik B, Werfel T. Short-form thymic stromal lymphopoietin (sfTSLP) restricts herpes simplex virus infection of human primary keratinocytes. J Med Virol 2024; 96:e29865. [PMID: 39233492 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.29865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024]
Abstract
Eczema herpeticum (EH) is a disseminated severe herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection that mainly occurs in a subset of patients suffering from atopic dermatitis (AD). EH is complex and multifaceted, involving immunological changes, environmental influences, and genetic aberrations. Certain genetic variants of the thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) may predispose to develop severe HSV-1-induced eczema. Therefore, we investigated the impact of TSLP on HSV-1 infection. TSLP encodes for two distinct forms: a long-form (lfTSLP), primarily associated with type 2 immunity, and a short-form (sfTSLP) with anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. While sfTSLP reduced HSV-1 infectibility in human primary keratinocytes (HPK), lfTSLP did not. In HPK treated with sfTSLP, HSV-1 gene expression, and replication decreased, while virion binding to cells and targeting of incoming capsids to the nucleus were not diminished compared to untreated cells. sfTSLP caused only minor changes in the expression of innate immunity cytokines, and its inhibition of HSV-1 infection did not require de novo protein synthesis. Time window experiments indicated a different antiviral mechanism than LL-37. sfTSLP showed the strongest antiviral effect when administered to HPK before or after inoculation with HSV-1, and outperformed the inhibitory potential of LL-37 under these conditions. Our data show that sfTSLP has antiviral functions and promotes repression of the HSV-1 infection in HPK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Zeitvogel
- Division of Immunodermatology and Allergy Research, Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Katinka Döhner
- Division of Immunodermatology and Allergy Research, Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ilona Klug
- Division of Immunodermatology and Allergy Research, Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Timmy Richardo
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institut of Immunology, Department of Innate Immunity, Tübingen University, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Beate Sodeik
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- DZIF - German Centre for Infection Research, Hannover- Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Thomas Werfel
- Division of Immunodermatology and Allergy Research, Department of Dermatology and Allergy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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6
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Qiu Y, Sajidah ES, Kondo S, Narimatsu S, Sandira MI, Higashiguchi Y, Nishide G, Taoka A, Hazawa M, Inaba Y, Inoue H, Matsushima A, Okada Y, Nakada M, Ando T, Lim K, Wong RW. An Efficient Method for Isolating and Purifying Nuclei from Mice Brain for Single-Molecule Imaging Using High-Speed Atomic Force Microscopy. Cells 2024; 13:279. [PMID: 38334671 PMCID: PMC10855070 DOI: 10.3390/cells13030279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) on the nuclear membrane surface have a crucial function in controlling the movement of small molecules and macromolecules between the cell nucleus and cytoplasm through their intricate core channel resembling a spiderweb with several layers. Currently, there are few methods available to accurately measure the dynamics of nuclear pores on the nuclear membranes at the nanoscale. The limitation of traditional optical imaging is due to diffraction, which prevents achieving the required resolution for observing a diverse array of organelles and proteins within cells. Super-resolution techniques have effectively addressed this constraint by enabling the observation of subcellular components on the nanoscale. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that these methods often need the use of fixed samples. This also raises the question of how closely a static image represents the real intracellular dynamic system. High-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) is a unique technique used in the field of dynamic structural biology, enabling the study of individual molecules in motion close to their native states. Establishing a reliable and repeatable technique for imaging mammalian tissue at the nanoscale using HS-AFM remains challenging due to inadequate sample preparation. This study presents the rapid strainer microfiltration (RSM) protocol for directly preparing high-quality nuclei from the mouse brain. Subsequently, we promptly utilize HS-AFM real-time imaging and cinematography approaches to record the spatiotemporal of nuclear pore nano-dynamics from the mouse brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Qiu
- Division of Nano Life Science, Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; (Y.Q.); (M.I.S.)
| | - Elma Sakinatus Sajidah
- WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan (M.H.); (T.A.)
| | - Sota Kondo
- Division of Nano Life Science, Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; (Y.Q.); (M.I.S.)
| | - Shinnosuke Narimatsu
- Division of Nano Life Science, Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; (Y.Q.); (M.I.S.)
| | - Muhammad Isman Sandira
- Division of Nano Life Science, Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; (Y.Q.); (M.I.S.)
| | - Yoshiki Higashiguchi
- Division of Nano Life Science, Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; (Y.Q.); (M.I.S.)
| | - Goro Nishide
- Division of Nano Life Science, Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; (Y.Q.); (M.I.S.)
| | - Azuma Taoka
- WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan (M.H.); (T.A.)
| | - Masaharu Hazawa
- WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan (M.H.); (T.A.)
- Cell-Bionomics Research Unit, Innovative Integrated Bio-Research Core, Institute for Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Yuka Inaba
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Unit, Institute for Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-8641, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Inoue
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Unit, Institute for Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-8641, Japan
| | - Ayami Matsushima
- Laboratory of Structure-Function Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Yuki Okada
- Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Mitsutoshi Nakada
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-8641, Japan
| | - Toshio Ando
- WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan (M.H.); (T.A.)
| | - Keesiang Lim
- WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan (M.H.); (T.A.)
| | - Richard W. Wong
- Division of Nano Life Science, Graduate School of Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan; (Y.Q.); (M.I.S.)
- WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan (M.H.); (T.A.)
- Cell-Bionomics Research Unit, Innovative Integrated Bio-Research Core, Institute for Frontier Science Initiative, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
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7
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Sule KC, Nakamura M, Parkhurst SM. Nuclear envelope budding: Getting large macromolecular complexes out of the nucleus. Bioessays 2024; 46:e2300182. [PMID: 38044581 PMCID: PMC10843589 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202300182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Transport of macromolecules from the nucleus to the cytoplasm is essential for nearly all cellular and developmental events, and when mis-regulated, is associated with diseases, tumor formation/growth, and cancer progression. Nuclear Envelope (NE)-budding is a newly appreciated nuclear export pathway for large macromolecular machineries, including those assembled to allow co-regulation of functionally related components, that bypasses canonical nuclear export through nuclear pores. In this pathway, large macromolecular complexes are enveloped by the inner nuclear membrane, transverse the perinuclear space, and then exit through the outer nuclear membrane to release its contents into the cytoplasm. NE-budding is a conserved process and shares many features with nuclear egress mechanisms used by herpesviruses. Despite its biological importance and clinical relevance, little is yet known about the regulatory and structural machineries that allow NE-budding to occur in any system. Here we summarize what is currently known or proposed for this intriguing nuclear export process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin C. Sule
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA 98109
| | - Mitsutoshi Nakamura
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA 98109
| | - Susan M. Parkhurst
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA 98109
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