The formation and back isomerization of iso-H2C–Br–Br on a 100-ps time scale following 255-nm excitation of CH2Br2 in acetonitrile

Optical frequency comb-based measurements and the revisited assignment of high-resolution spectra of CH2Br2 in the 2960 to 3120 cm-1 region

Brominated organic compounds are toxic ocean-derived trace gases that affect the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere and contribute to its bromine burden. Quantitative spectroscopic detection of these gases is limited by the lack of accurate absorption cross-section data as well as rigorous spectroscopic models. This work presents measurements of high-resolution spectra of dibromomethane, CH₂Br₂, from 2960 cm^-1 to 3120 cm^-1 by two optical frequency comb-based methods, Fourier transform spectroscopy and a spatially dispersive method based on a virtually imaged phased array. The integrated absorption cross-sections measured using the two spectrometers are in excellent agreement with each other within 4%. A revisited rovibrational assignment of the measured spectra is introduced, in which the progressions of features are attributed to hot bands rather than different isotopologues as was previously done. Overall, twelve vibrational transitions, four for each of the three isotopologues CH₂⁸¹Br₂, CH₂⁷⁹Br⁸¹Br, and CH₂⁷⁹Br₂, are assigned. These four vibrational transitions are attributed to the fundamental ν₆ band and the nearby nν₄ + ν₆ - nν₄ hot bands (with n = 1-3) due to the population of the low-lying ν₄ mode of the Br-C-Br bending vibration at room temperature. The new simulations show very good agreement in intensities with the experiment as predicted by the Boltzmann distribution factor. The spectra of the fundamental and the hot bands show progressions of strong Q_Ka(J) rovibrational sub-clusters. The band heads of these sub-clusters are assigned and fitted to the measured spectra, providing accurate band origins and the rotational constants for the twelve states with an average error of 0.0084 cm^-1. A detailed fit of the ν₆ band of the CH₂⁷⁹Br⁸¹Br isotopologue is commenced after assigning 1808 partially resolved rovibrational lines, with the band origin, rotational, and centrifugal constants as fit parameters, resulting in an average error of 0.0011 cm^-1.

Insights into unexpected photoisomerization from photooxidation of tribromoacetic acid in aqueous environment using ultrafast spectroscopy

Haloacetic acids are carcinogenic disinfection by-products (DPBs) and their photo-decomposition pathways, especially for those containing bromine and iodine, are not fully understood. In this study, femtosecond transient absorption (fs-TA) spectroscopy experiments were introduced for the first time to investigate the photochemistry of tribromoacetic acid. The fs-TA experiments showed that a photoisomerization intermediate species HOOCCBr₂-Br (iso-TBAA) was formed within several picoseconds after the excitation of TBAA. The absorption wavelength of the iso-TBAA was supported by time-dependent density calculations. With the Second-order Møller-Plesset perturbation theory, the structures and thermodynamics of the OH-insertion reactions of iso-TBAA were elucidated when water molecules were involved in the reaction complex. The calculations also revealed that the isomer species were able to react with water with its reaction dynamics dramatically catalyzed by the hydrogen bonding network. The proposed water catalyzed OH-insertion/HBr elimination mechanism predicted three major photoproducts, namely, HBr, CO and CO₂, which was consistent with the photolysis experiments with firstly reported CO formation rate and mass conversion yield as 0.096 min^-1 and 0.75 ± 0.1 respectively. The spectroscopic technique, numerical tool and disclosed mechanisms provided insights on photodecomposition and subsequent reactions of polyhalo-DPBs contain heavy atom(s) (e.g., Br, I) with water, aliphatic alcohols or other nucleophiles.

Complete photodissociation dynamics of CF2I2in solution

Photoexcited CF₂I₂in c-C₆H₁₂undergoes various secondary reactions including complex and isomer formation, after ultrafast two- or three-body dissociations.

Transient isomers in the photodissociation of bromoiodomethane

The photochemistry of halomethanes is fascinating for the complex cascade reactions toward either the parent or newly synthesized molecules. Here, we address the structural rearrangement of photodissociated CH₂IBr in methanol and cyclohexane, probed by time-resolved X-ray scattering in liquid solution. Upon selective laser cleavage of the C-I bond, we follow the reaction cascade of the two geminate geometrical isomers, CH₂I-Br and CH₂Br-I. Both meta-stable isomers decay on different time scales, mediated by solvent interaction, toward the original parent molecule. We observe the internal rearrangement of CH₂Br-I to CH₂I-Br in cyclohexane by extending the time window up to 3 μs. We track the photoproduct kinetics of CH₂Br-I in methanol solution where only one isomer is observed. The effect of the polarity of solvent on the geminate recombination pathways is discussed.

Taking the plunge: chemical reaction dynamics in liquids

The dynamics of chemical reactions in liquid solutions are now amenable to direct study using ultrafast laser spectroscopy techniques and advances in computer simulation methods. The surrounding solvent affects the chemical reaction dynamics in numerous ways, which include: (i) formation of complexes between reactants and solvent molecules; (ii) modifications to transition state energies and structures relative to the reactants and products; (iii) coupling between the motions of the reacting molecules and the solvent modes, and exchange of energy; (iv) solvent caging of reactants and products; and (v) structural changes to the solvation shells in response to the changing chemical identity of the solutes, on timescales which may be slower than the reactive events. This article reviews progress in the study of bimolecular chemical reaction dynamics in solution, concentrating on reactions which occur on ground electronic states. It illustrates this progress with reference to recent experimental and computational studies, and considers how the various ways in which a solvent affects the chemical reaction dynamics can be unravelled. Implications are considered for research in fields such as mechanistic synthetic chemistry.

Direct photoisomerization of CH2I2vs. CHBr3 in the gas phase: a joint 50 fs experimental and multireference resonance-theoretical study

Femtosecond transient absorption measurements powered by 40 fs laser pulses reveal that ultrafast isomerization takes place upon S₁ excitation of both CH₂I₂ and CHBr₃ in the gas phase. The photochemical conversion process is direct and intramolecular, i.e., it proceeds without caging media that have long been implicated in the photo-induced isomerization of polyhalogenated alkanes in condensed phases. Using multistate complete active space second order perturbation theory (MS-CASPT2) calculations, we investigate the structure of the photochemical reaction paths connecting the photoexcited species to their corresponding isomeric forms. Unconstrained minimum energy paths computed starting from the S₁ Franck-Condon points lead to S₁/S₀ conical intersections, which directly connect the parent CHBr₃ and CH₂I₂ molecules to their isomeric forms. Changes in the chemical bonding picture along the S₁/S₀ isomerization reaction path are described using multireference average coupled pair functional (MRACPF) calculations in conjunction with natural resonance theory (NRT) analysis. These calculations reveal a complex interplay between covalent, radical, ylidic, and ion-pair dominant resonance structures throughout the nonadiabatic photochemical isomerization processes described in this work.

Doppler-limited high-resolution spectrum and VPT2 assisted assignment of the C-H stretch of CH2Br2

The Doppler limited non-saturated rotationally resolved infrared spectra of the symmetric and asymmetric CH-stretch bands of CH₂Br₂ have been measured. A continuous wave cavity ringdown setup with a widely tunable Mid-IR-OPO laser light source yielded a single-shot minimum absorption of 4.9×10^-8cm^-1. In contrast to the heavily congested ν₁ band, the ν₆ band showed partially resolved rotational features that may serve as suitable absorption targets in future environmental detection schemes for CH₂Br₂. A straightforward, VPT2 (second-order vibrational perturbation theory) assisted quantum-chemical approach for assigning the rotational structure has been tested using different model chemistries. The molecular structures, anharmonic frequencies and the structural changes upon vibrational excitation of CH₂Br₂ have been investigated. The predicted changes of the anharmonic rotational constants have been used together with available spectroscopic ground state constants to simulate the rovibrational structures of the ν₁ and ν₆ bands of CH₂Br₂. A refined analysis of the ν₆ band is presented yielding accurate values for the band origin and the rotational constants. A fit of the line positions of 312 prominent transitions of the three isotopologues revealed a low standard error of 0.00056cm^-1, hence within the absolute 0.0009cm^-1 wavelength accuracy of the used spectrometer setup. A combined analysis of the predicted line strengths and positions of the strong Q sub-branches of the ν₆ band has been performed to test the ability of the different density functionals for VPT2 prediction of anharmonic molecular constants. The M06/6-311++G(d,p) model chemistry turned out to yield reliable state-dependent rotational constants that are accurate enough to reproduce the overall rotational structure even without fitting.

Solvent dependent branching between C-I and C-Br bond cleavage following 266 nm excitation of CH2BrI

It is well known that ultraviolet photoexcitation of halomethanes results in halogen-carbon bond cleavage. Each halogen-carbon bond has a dominant ultraviolet (UV) absorption that promotes an electron from a nonbonding halogen orbital (nX) to a carbon-halogen antibonding orbital (σ*C-X). UV absorption into specific transitions in the gas phase results primarily in selective cleavage of the corresponding carbon-halogen bond. In the present work, broadband ultrafast UV-visible transient absorption studies of CH2BrI reveal a more complex photochemistry in solution. Transient absorption spectra are reported spanning the range from 275 nm to 750 nm and 300 fs to 3 ns following excitation of CH2BrI at 266 nm in acetonitrile, 2-butanol, and cyclohexane. Channels involving formation of CH2Br + I radical pairs, iso-CH2Br-I, and iso-CH2I-Br are identified. The solvent environment has a significant influence on the branching ratios, and on the formation and stability of iso-CH2Br-I. Both iso-CH2Br-I and iso-CH2I-Br are observed in cyclohexane with a ratio of ~2.8:1. In acetonitrile this ratio is 7:1 or larger. The observation of formation of iso-CH2I-Br photoproduct as well as iso-CH2Br-I following 266 nm excitation is a novel result that suggests complexity in the dissociation mechanism. We also report a solvent and concentration dependent lifetime of iso-CH2Br-I. At low concentrations the lifetime is >4 ns in acetonitrile, 1.9 ns in 2-butanol and ~1.4 ns in cyclohexane. These lifetimes decrease with higher initial concentrations of CH2BrI. The concentration dependence highlights the role that intermolecular interactions can play in the quenching of unstable isomers of dihalomethanes.

Comparing molecular photofragmentation dynamics in the gas and liquid phases

This article explores the extent to which insights gleaned from detailed studies of molecular photodissociations in the gas phase (i.e. under isolated molecule conditions) can inform our understanding of the corresponding photofragmentation processes in solution. Systems selected for comparison include a thiophenol (p-methylthiophenol), a thioanisole (p-methylthioanisole) and phenol, in vacuum and in cyclohexane solution. UV excitation in the gas phase results in RX-Y (X = O, S; Y = H, CH3) bond fission in all cases, but over timescales that vary by ~4 orders of magnitude - all of which behaviours can be rationalised on the basis of the relevant bound and dissociative excited state potential energy surfaces (PESs) accessed by UV photoexcitation, and of the conical intersections that facilitate radiationless transfer between these PESs. Time-resolved UV pump-broadband UV/visible probe and/or UV pump-broadband IR probe studies of the corresponding systems in cyclohexane solution reveal additional processes that are unique to the condensed phase. Thus, for example, the data clearly reveal evidence of (i) vibrational relaxation of the photoexcited molecules prior to their dissociation and of the radical fragments formed upon X-Y bond fission, and (ii) geminate recombination of the RX and Y products (leading to reformation of the ground state parent and/or isomeric adducts). Nonetheless, the data also show that, in each case, the characteristics (and the timescale) of the initial bond fission process that occurs under isolated molecule conditions are barely changed by the presence of a weakly interacting solvent like cyclohexane. These condensed phase studies are then extended to an ether analogue of phenol (allyl phenyl ether), wherein UV photo-induced RO-allyl bond fission constitutes the first step of a photo-Claisen rearrangement.