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Ma G, He Y, Chen B, Deng H, Liu Y, Wang X, Zhao Z, Kan R. Quasi-Simultaneous Sensitive Detection of Two Gas Species by Cavity-Ringdown Spectroscopy with Two Lasers. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:7622. [PMID: 34833699 PMCID: PMC8624139 DOI: 10.3390/s21227622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We developed a cavity ringdown spectrometer by utilizing a step-scanning and dithering method for matching laser wavelengths to optical resonances of an optical cavity. Our approach is capable of working with two and more lasers for quasi-simultaneous measurements of multiple gas species. The developed system was tested with two lasers operating around 1654 nm and 1658 nm for spectral detections of 12CH4 and its isotope 13CH4 in air, respectively. The ringdown time of the empty cavity was about 340 µs. The achieved high detection sensitivity of a noise-equivalent absorption coefficient was 2.8 × 10-11 cm-1 Hz-1/2 or 1 × 10-11 cm-1 by averaging for 30 s. The uncertainty of the high precision determination of δ13CH4 in air is about 1.3‰. Such a system will be useful for future applications such as environmental monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guosheng Ma
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China; (G.M.); (Y.H.); (B.C.); (H.D.); (Y.L.)
- Graduate School of Science Island Branch, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Yabai He
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China; (G.M.); (Y.H.); (B.C.); (H.D.); (Y.L.)
| | - Bing Chen
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China; (G.M.); (Y.H.); (B.C.); (H.D.); (Y.L.)
| | - Hao Deng
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China; (G.M.); (Y.H.); (B.C.); (H.D.); (Y.L.)
| | - Ying Liu
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China; (G.M.); (Y.H.); (B.C.); (H.D.); (Y.L.)
- Graduate School of Science Island Branch, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Xingping Wang
- School of Engineering Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China;
| | - Zhihao Zhao
- College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China;
| | - Ruifeng Kan
- Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China; (G.M.); (Y.H.); (B.C.); (H.D.); (Y.L.)
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Yuan F, Hu M, He Y, Chen B, Yao L, Xu Z, Kan R. Development of an in situ analysis system for methane dissolved in seawater based on cavity ringdown spectroscopy. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2020; 91:083106. [PMID: 32872969 DOI: 10.1063/5.0004742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports the development of a compact in situ real-time concentration analysis system for methane dissolved in seawater by using a continuous-wave cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CRDS) technique. The miniaturized design of the system, including optical resonance cavity and control and data acquisition-analysis electronics, has a cylindrical dimension of 550 mm in length and 100 mm in diameter. Ringdown signal generation, data acquisition and storage, current driver, and temperature controller of the diode laser are all integrated in the miniaturized system circuits, with an electrical power consumption of less than 12 W. Fitting algorithms of the ringdown signal and spectral line are implemented in a digital signal processor, which is the main control chip of the system circuit. The detection sensitivity for methane concentration can reach 0.4 ppbv with an approximate averaging time of 240 s (or 4 min). Comparing the system's measurement of ambient air against a high-quality commercial CRDS instrument has demonstrated a good agreement in results. In addition, as a "proof of concept" for measuring dissolved methane, the developed instrument was tested in an actual underwater environment. The results showed the potential of this miniaturized portable instrument for in situ gas sensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Mai Hu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Yabai He
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Bing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Lu Yao
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Zhenyu Xu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Ruifeng Kan
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
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Bresteau D, Blondel C, Drag C. Saturation of the photoneutralization of a H - beam in continuous operation. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2017; 88:113103. [PMID: 29195388 DOI: 10.1063/1.4995390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
An unprecedented, greater than 50%, photodetachment rate is obtained on a H- beam in the continuous regime. The key element of the experimental setup is a medium-finesse optical cavity, suspended around the anion beam, which makes it possible to recycle the photon flux in the interaction region, at the crossing between the anion and laser beams. The cavity is injected by a narrow-linewidth ytterbium-doped fibre laser, at the wavelength 1064 nm. The light power stored in the cavity is about 14 kW for 24 W of input light power. Similar greater-than-50% photo-neutralization efficiencies can be contemplated for beams with kinetic energies much larger than 1.2 keV of the presently used H- beam, given the fact that the stored light power can be increased, for larger beam diameters, by several orders of magnitude. The technique can thus be relied on to design novel D0 injectors, for fusion reactors, with a much better efficiency than the molecular-collision based injectors presently developed for ITER. It can also be applied to the production of neutral beams of any species that can be conveniently prepared in the form of an anion beam, provided that efficient light power storage can be achieved for the corresponding photodetachment wavelength.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Bresteau
- Laboratoire Aimé-Cotton, CNRS, École Normale Supérieure de Cachan, Université Paris-Sud, F-91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - C Blondel
- Laboratoire Aimé-Cotton, CNRS, École Normale Supérieure de Cachan, Université Paris-Sud, F-91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - C Drag
- Laboratoire Aimé-Cotton, CNRS, École Normale Supérieure de Cachan, Université Paris-Sud, F-91405 Orsay Cedex, France
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Schwartz O, Axelrod JJ, Tuthill DR, Haslinger P, Ophus C, Glaeser RM, Müller H. Near-concentric Fabry-Pérot cavity for continuous-wave laser control of electron waves. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:14453-14462. [PMID: 28789031 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.014453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Manipulating free-space electron wave functions with laser fields can bring about new electron-optical elements for transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In particular, a Zernike phase plate would enable high-contrast TEM imaging of soft matter, leading to new opportunities in structural biology and materials science. A Zernike phase plate can be implemented using a tight, intense continuous laser focus that shifts the phase of the electron wave by the ponderomotive potential. Here, we use a near-concentric cavity to focus 7.5 kW of continuous-wave circulating laser power at 1064 nm into a 7 µm mode waist, achieving a record continuous laser intensity of 40 GW/cm2. Such parameters are sufficient to impart a phase shift of 1 rad to a 10 keV electron beam, or 0.16 rad to a 300 keV beam. Our numerical simulations confirm that the standing-wave phase shift profile imprinted on the electron wave by the intra-cavity field can serve as a nearly ideal Zernike phase plate.
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Lecaplain C, Javerzac-Galy C, Gorodetsky ML, Kippenberg TJ. Mid-infrared ultra-high-Q resonators based on fluoride crystalline materials. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13383. [PMID: 27869119 PMCID: PMC5121327 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The unavailability of highly transparent materials in the mid-infrared has been the main limitation in the development of ultra-sensitive molecular sensors or cavity-based spectroscopy applications. Whispering gallery mode microresonators have attained ultra-high-quality (Q) factor resonances in the near-infrared and visible. Here we report ultra-high Q factors in the mid-infrared using polished alkaline earth metal fluoride crystals. Using an uncoated chalcogenide tapered fibre as a high-ideality coupler in the mid-infrared, we study via cavity ringdown technique the losses of BaF2, CaF2, MgF2 and SrF2 microresonators. We show that MgF2 is limited by multiphonon absorption by studying the temperature dependence of the Q factor. In contrast, in SrF2 and BaF2 the lower multiphonon absorption leads to ultra-high Q factors at 4.5 μm. These values correspond to an optical finesse of , the highest value achieved for any type of mid-infrared resonator to date. Highly sensitive trace-gas detection is possible in the mid-infrared range with transparent microresonators. Here, the authors directly measure the necessary ultra-high quality factors of microresonators made from fluoride crystal materials using a tapered chalcogenide fibre.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lecaplain
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - C Javerzac-Galy
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - M L Gorodetsky
- Russian Quantum Center, 143025 Skolkovo, Russia.,Faculty of Physics, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - T J Kippenberg
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Ringing phenomenon based whispering-gallery-mode sensing. Sci Rep 2016; 6:19597. [PMID: 26796871 PMCID: PMC4726230 DOI: 10.1038/srep19597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly sensitive sensing is one of the most important applications of whispering-gallery-mode (WGM) microresonators, which is usually accomplished through a tunable continuous-wave laser sweeping over a whispering-gallery mode with the help of a fiber taper in a relative slow speed. It is known that if a tunable continuous-wave laser sweeps over a high quality whispering-gallery mode in a fast speed, a ringing phenomenon will be observed. The ringing phenomenon in WGM microresonators is mainly used to measure the Q factors and mode-coupling strengths. Here we experimentally demonstrate that the WGM sensing can be achieved based on the ringing phenomenon. This kind of sensing is accomplished in a much shorter time and is immune to the noise caused by the laser wavelength drift.
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Gatti D, Gotti R, Sala T, Coluccelli N, Belmonte M, Prevedelli M, Laporta P, Marangoni M. Wide-bandwidth Pound-Drever-Hall locking through a single-sideband modulator. OPTICS LETTERS 2015; 40:5176-5179. [PMID: 26565828 DOI: 10.1364/ol.40.005176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
An integrated single-sideband modulator is used as the sole wide-bandwidth frequency actuator in a Pound-Drever-Hall locking loop. Thanks to the large modulation bandwidth, the device enables a locking range of ±75 MHz and a control bandwidth of 5 MHz without the need for a second feedback loop. As applied to the coupling of an extended-cavity diode laser at 1.55 μm to a high-finesse optical cavity, the in-loop frequency noise spectral density reaches a minimum of 1 mHz/Hz(1/2) at 1 kHz.
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Chen B, Sun YR, Zhou ZY, Chen J, Liu AW, Hu SM. Ultrasensitive, self-calibrated cavity ring-down spectrometer for quantitative trace gas analysis. APPLIED OPTICS 2014; 53:7716-7723. [PMID: 25402995 DOI: 10.1364/ao.53.007716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A cavity ring-down spectrometer is built for trace gas detection using telecom distributed feedback (DFB) diode lasers. The longitudinal modes of the ring-down cavity are used as frequency markers without active-locking either the laser or the high-finesse cavity. A control scheme is applied to scan the DFB laser frequency, matching the cavity modes one by one in sequence and resulting in a correct index at each recorded spectral data point, which allows us to calibrate the spectrum with a relative frequency precision of 0.06 MHz. Besides the frequency precision of the spectrometer, a sensitivity (noise-equivalent absorption) of 4×10-11 cm-1 Hz-1/2 has also been demonstrated. A minimum detectable absorption coefficient of 5×10-12 cm-1 has been obtained by averaging about 100 spectra recorded in 2 h. The quantitative accuracy is tested by measuring the CO2 concentrations in N2 samples prepared by the gravimetric method, and the relative deviation is less than 0.3%. The trace detection capability is demonstrated by detecting CO2 of ppbv-level concentrations in a high-purity nitrogen gas sample. Simple structure, high sensitivity, and good accuracy make the instrument very suitable for quantitative trace gas analysis.
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Haggett S, Krakowski M, Montrosset I, Cataluna MA. High-power quantum-dot tapered tunable external-cavity lasers based on chirped and unchirped structures. OPTICS EXPRESS 2014; 22:22854-22864. [PMID: 25321756 DOI: 10.1364/oe.22.022854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A high-power tunable external cavity laser configuration with a tapered quantum-dot semiconductor optical amplifier at its core is presented, enabling a record output power for a broadly tunable semiconductor laser source in the 1.2 - 1.3 µm spectral region. Two distinct optical amplifiers are investigated, using either chirped or unchirped quantum-dot structures, and their merits are compared, considering the combination of tunability and high output power generation. At 1230 nm, the chirped quantum-dot laser achieved a maximum power of 0.62 W and demonstrated nearly 100-nm tunability. The unchirped laser enabled a tunability range of 32 nm and at 1254 nm generated a maximum power of 0.97 W, representing a 22-fold increase in output power compared with similar narrow-ridge external-cavity lasers at the same current density.
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He Y, Jin C, Kan R, Liu J, Liu W, Hill J, Jamie IM, Orr BJ. Remote open-path cavity-ringdown spectroscopic sensing of trace gases in air, based on distributed passive sensors linked by km-long optical fibers. OPTICS EXPRESS 2014; 22:13170-13189. [PMID: 24921513 DOI: 10.1364/oe.22.013170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A continuous-wave, rapidly swept cavity-ringdown spectroscopic technique has been developed for localized atmospheric sensing of trace gases at remote sites. It uses one or more passive open-path optical sensor units, coupled by optical fiber over distances of >1 km to a single transmitter/receiver console incorporating a photodetector and a swept-frequency diode laser tuned to molecule-specific near-infrared wavelengths. Ways to avoid interference from stimulated Brillouin scattering in long optical fibers have been devised. This rugged open-path system, deployable in agricultural, industrial, and natural atmospheric environments, is used to monitor ammonia in air. A noise-limited minimum detectable mixing ratio of ~11 ppbv is attained for ammonia in nitrogen at atmospheric pressure.
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Berger NK. High-resolution broadband spectroscopy with a resonator-based phase modulator. APPLIED OPTICS 2013; 52:4620-4630. [PMID: 23842260 DOI: 10.1364/ao.52.004620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A method for significant enhancement of the spectral resolution of a Fabry-Perot resonator in transmission and absorption measurements is proposed. In the method, a laser with ultrashort pulses is used as the optical source. A dispersive element is placed in front of the Fabry-Perot resonator and a phase modulator is incorporated into the resonator. The spectrum of the laser pulse transmitted through the system is approximately periodic with ultranarrow peaks. The sample transmission spectrum is measured by scanning the output pulse spectrum. It is demonstrated, in numerical simulations, that for realistic parameters of the phase modulator, the finesse of the Fabry-Perot resonator is increased from 72 to 1900 and a resolution of 1 MHz is achieved. A method for increasing the spectral range of measurements with scanning the periodic spectra is also proposed. The method is based on the use of a waveguide array of Mach-Zehnder interferometers or a single discretely tunable interferometer. The measurement of the sample transmission spectrum within 33 free spectral ranges of the resonator is numerically demonstrated. The spectral range of the measurement can be increased up to 10 THz resulting in the equivalent finesse of the system of 10(7) for a 100 fs laser pulse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naum K Berger
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
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Földes T. Note: A very simple circuit for piezo actuator pseudo-tracking for continuous-wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2013; 84:016102. [PMID: 23387708 DOI: 10.1063/1.4774044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A very simple circuit for pseudo-tracking of the piezo actuator for continuous-wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy (cw-CRDS) is presented. The circuit is based on an ordinary positive-edge trigger D-type flip flop integrated circuit, has a low parts count, and can be easily assembled using only off the shelf components. The circuit can be straightforwardly incorporated into most cw-CRDS setups and, thanks to the increased ring-down event rate, higher sensitivity or lower data acquisition time can be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Földes
- Laboratoire de Chimie quantique et Photophysique, Université libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium.
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Tanner CM, Quack M. Reinvestigation of the ν2 + 2ν3subband in the overtone icosad of12CH4using cavity ring-down (CRD) spectroscopy of a supersonic jet expansion. Mol Phys 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/00268976.2012.702934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Harb CC, Boyson TK, Kallapur AG, Petersen IR, Calzada ME, Spence TG, Kirkbride KP, Moore DS. Pulsed quantum cascade laser-based CRDS substance detection: real-time detection of TNT. OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 20:15489-15502. [PMID: 22772244 DOI: 10.1364/oe.20.015489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents experimental results from a pulsed quantum cascade laser based cavity ringdown spectrometer used as a high-throughput detection system. The results were obtained from an optical cavity with 99.8% input and output coupling mirrors that was rapidly swept (0.2s to 7s sweep times) between 1582.25 cm(-1) (6.3201μm) and 1697.00 cm(-1) (5.8928μm). The spectrometer was able to monitor gas species over the pressure range 585 torr to 1μtorr, and the analysis involves a new digital data processing system that optimises the processing speed and minimises the data storage requirements. In this approach we show that is it not necessary to make direct measurements of the ringdown time of the cavity to obtain the system dynamics. Furthermore, we show that correct data processing is crucial for the ultimate implementation of a wideband IR spectrometer that covers a range similar to that of commercial Fourier transform infrared instruments.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Harb
- School of Engineering and Information Technology, University College, The University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia.
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Arslanov DD, Swinkels K, Cristescu SM, Harren FJM. Real-time, subsecond, multicomponent breath analysis by Optical Parametric Oscillator based Off-Axis Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy. OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 19:24078-24089. [PMID: 22109433 DOI: 10.1364/oe.19.024078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Breath analysis is an attractive field of research, due to its high potential for non-invasive medical diagnostics. Among others, laser-based absorption spectroscopy is an excellent method for the detection of gases in exhaled breath, because it can combine a high sensitivity with a good selectivity, and a high temporal resolution. Here, we use a fast-scanning continuous wave, singly-resonant Optical Parametric Oscillator (wavelength range between 3 and 4 μm, linewidth 40 MHz, output power > 1 W, scanning speed 100 THz/s) with Off-Axis Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy for rapid and sensitive trace gas detection. Real-time, low- ppbv detection of ethane is demonstrated in exhaled human breath during free exhalations. Also, simultaneous, real-time multi-component gas detection of ethane, methane and water was performed in exhaled breath using a wide spectral coverage over 17 cm(-1) in 1 second. Furthermore, real-time detection of acetone, a molecule with a wide absorption spectrum, was shown in exhaled breath, with a sub-second time resolution (0.4 s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis D Arslanov
- Life Science Trace Gas Research Group, Molecular and Laser Physics, Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, NL-6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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