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Bakhtarikia S, Tavanai E, Rouhbakhsh N, Sayadi AJ, Sabet VK. Investigating the effectiveness of music therapy combined with binaural beats on chronic tinnitus: A randomized controlled trial. Am J Otolaryngol 2024; 45:104308. [PMID: 38723376 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjoto.2024.104308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Binaural beat stimulation (BBS) involve presenting two sinusoidal waves with specific frequency differences to induce neural changes in the brain, often used for mental state induction and symptom reduction. However, there are limited studies on its effectiveness for tinnitus. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of combining binaural beats with music containing nature sounds for chronic tinnitus. METHODS A total of 30 men, aged 45.87 on average (SD = 8.09), who had chronic tinnitus and symmetrical mild to moderate hearing loss, were included in this study. The participants were randomly assigned to two groups: MT group (Music therapy; n = 15), which received relaxing music containing the sound of sea waves, and MT + BBS group (Music therapy plus binaural beats; n = 15), which received the same music combined with alpha frequency (8 Hz) binaural beats. The therapy sessions were conducted twice a day for 15 min, over a period of 4 weeks. Outcome measures, including the Tinnitus Handicap Inventory (THI), Tinnitus Functional Index (TFI), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and the pitch and loudness of tinnitus were administered before, immediately after, and during the three-month follow-up period. RESULTS The findings revealed improvements in loudness and annoyance VAS, as well as THI total and all subscale scores in both groups (p < 0.001). Additionally, TFI total score showed improvement in both groups (MT: p = 0.001; MT + BBS: p < 0.001) except for the sense of control subscale in both groups and the cognitive subscale in the MT group after the treatment and during the three-month follow-up period. Furthermore, both groups exhibited a decrease in scores for both subscales of HADS. However, there were no significant differences between the two groups in any of the measurement outcomes (p > 0.05), except for the emotional subscale scores of TFI (p = 0.049) and the functional subscale scores of THI (p = 0.034). In other words, during the follow-up period, the MT + BBS group exhibited lower scores in these two subscales compared to the MT group. CONCLUSION Although our study failed to demonstrate the superiority of combining binaural beats with music, both groups experienced significant improvements. This suggest that there are potential benefits to be gained from these types of stimuli. Given the sustained effect of both methods and the even greater improvements in follow-up observed in the binaural beats group for some scales, it seems that the changes in neural response and brain waves caused by our stimulations are persistent. This necessitates further research involving brain mapping, especially with longer follow-up durations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somayeh Bakhtarikia
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran
| | - Elham Tavanai
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran.
| | - Nematollah Rouhbakhsh
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran
| | | | - Vida Khorsand Sabet
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran
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Schmidt LM, Chaieb L, Derner M, Reber TP, Fell J. Side effects of monaural beat stimulation during sustained mental work on mind wandering and performance measures. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1375717. [PMID: 38708020 PMCID: PMC11066263 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1375717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Excessive mind wandering (MW) contributes to the development and maintenance of psychiatric disorders. Previous studies have suggested that auditory beat stimulation may represent a method enabling a reduction of MW. However, little is known about how different auditory stimulation conditions are subjectively perceived and whether this perception is in turn related to changes in subjective states, behavioral measures of attention and MW. In the present study, we therefore investigated MW under auditory beat stimulation and control conditions using experience sampling during a sustained attention to response task (SART). The subjective perception of the stimulation conditions, as well as changes in anxiety, stress and negative mood after versus before stimulation were assessed via visual-analog scales. Results showed that any auditory stimulation applied during the SART was perceived as more distracting, disturbing, uncomfortable and tiring than silence and was related to more pronounced increases of stress and negative mood. Importantly, the perception of the auditory conditions as disturbing was directly correlated with MW propensity. Additionally, distracting, disturbing and uncomfortable perceptions predicted negative mood. In turn, negative mood was inversely correlated with response accuracy for target stimuli, a behavioral indicator of MW. In summary, our data show that MW and attentional performance are affected by the adverse perception of auditory stimulation, and that this influence may be mediated by changes in mood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leila Chaieb
- Department of Epileptology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Marlene Derner
- Department of Epileptology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Thomas P. Reber
- Department of Epileptology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, Brig, Switzerland
| | - Juergen Fell
- Department of Epileptology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Krasnoff E, Chevalier G. Case report: binaural beats music assessment experiment. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:1138650. [PMID: 37213931 PMCID: PMC10196448 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1138650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
We recruited subjects with the focus on people who were stressed and needed a break to experience relaxation. The study used inaudible binaural beats (BB) to measure the ability of BB to induce a relaxed state. We found through measuring brain wave activity that in fact BB seem to objectively induce a state of relaxation. We were able to see this across several scores, F3/F4 Alpha Assessment and CZ Theta Beta, calculated from EEG readings, that indicated an increase in positive outlook and a relaxing brain, respectively, and scalp topography maps. Most subjects also showed an improvement in Menlascan measurements of microcirculation or cardiovascular score, although the Menlascan scores and Big Five character assessment results were less conclusive. BB seem to have profound effects on the physiology of subjects and since the beats were not audible, these effects could not be attributed to the placebo effect. These results are encouraging in terms of developing musical products incorporating BB to affect human neural rhythms and corollary states of consciousness and warrant further research with more subjects and different frequencies of BB and different music tracks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gaétan Chevalier
- Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Alonso-Valerdi LM, Ibarra-Zárate DI, Torres-Torres AS, Zolezzi DM, Naal-Ruiz NE, Argüello-García J. Comparative analysis of acoustic therapies for tinnitus treatment based on auditory event-related potentials. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1059096. [PMID: 37081936 PMCID: PMC10111057 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1059096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionSo far, Auditory Event-Related Potential (AERP) features have been used to characterize neural activity of patients with tinnitus. However, these EEG patterns could be used to evaluate tinnitus evolution as well. The aim of the present study is to propose a methodology based on AERPs to evaluate the effectiveness of four acoustic therapies for tinnitus treatment.MethodsThe acoustic therapies were: (1) Tinnitus Retraining Therapy (TRT), (2) Auditory Discrimination Therapy (ADT), (3) Therapy for Enriched Acoustic Environment (TEAE), and (4) Binaural Beats Therapy (BBT). In addition, relaxing music was included as a placebo for both: tinnitus sufferers and healthy individuals. To meet this aim, 103 participants were recruited, 53% were females and 47% were males. All the participants were treated for 8 weeks with one of these five sounds, which were moreover tuned in accordance with the acoustic features of their tinnitus (if applied) and hearing loss. They were electroencephalographically monitored before and after their acoustic therapy, and wherefrom AERPs were estimated. The sound effect of acoustic therapies was evaluated by examining the area under the curve of those AERPs. Two parameters were obtained: (1) amplitude and (2) topographical distribution.ResultsThe findings of the investigation showed that after an 8-week treatment, TRT and ADT, respectively achieved significant neurophysiological changes over somatosensory and occipital regions. On one hand, TRT increased the tinnitus perception. On the other hand, ADT redirected the tinnitus attention, what in turn diminished the tinnitus perception. Tinnitus handicapped inventory outcomes verified these neurophysiological findings, revealing that 31% of patients in each group reported that TRT increased tinnitus perception, but ADT diminished it.DiscussionTinnitus has been identified as a multifactorial condition highly associated with hearing loss, age, sex, marital status, education, and even, employment. However, no conclusive evidence has been found yet. In this study, a significant (but low) correlation was found between tinnitus intensity and right ear hearing loss, left ear hearing loss, heart rate, area under the curve of AERPs, and acoustic therapy. This study raises the possibility to assign acoustic therapies by neurophysiological response of patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luz M. Alonso-Valerdi
- Tecnológico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Monterrey, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Luz M. Alonso-Valerdi,
| | | | | | - Daniela M. Zolezzi
- Tecnológico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Monterrey, Mexico
| | | | - Janet Argüello-García
- Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria en Ingeniería y Tecnologías Avanzadas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
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Mazurek B, Hesse G, Sattel H, Kratzsch V, Lahmann C, Dobel C. S3 Guideline: Chronic Tinnitus : German Society for Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery e. V. (DGHNO-KHC). HNO 2022; 70:795-827. [PMID: 36227338 PMCID: PMC9581878 DOI: 10.1007/s00106-022-01207-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Mazurek
- Tinnituszentrum, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Gerhard Hesse
- Tinnitus-Klinik, KH Bad Arolsen, Große Allee 50, 34454, Bad Arolsen, Germany.
- Universität Witten/Herdecke, Witten, Germany.
| | - Heribert Sattel
- Klinikum rechts der Isar, Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie, Technical University of Munich, Langerstr. 3, 81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Volker Kratzsch
- Abt. Hörbehinderung, Tinnitus und Schwindelerkrankungen, VAMED Rehaklinik Bad Grönenbach, Sebastian-Kneipp-Allee 3-5, 87730, Bad Grönenbach, Germany
| | - Claas Lahmann
- Klinik für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie, Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Hauptstr. 8, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christian Dobel
- Klinik für Hals-, Nasen- und Ohrenheilkunde, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
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Choi MH, Jung JJ, Kim KB, Kim YJ, Lee JH, Kim HS, Yi JH, Kang OR, Kang YT, Chung SC. Effect of binaural beat in the inaudible band on EEG (STROBE). Medicine (Baltimore) 2022; 101:e29819. [PMID: 35777013 PMCID: PMC9239629 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000029819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the effects of the binaural beat (BB) on brainwave induction using an inaudible baseline frequency outside the audible frequency range. Experiments were conducted on 18 subjects (11 males [mean age: 25.7 ± 1.6 years] and 7 females [mean age: 24.0 ± 0.6 years]). A BB stimulation of 10 Hz was exerted by presenting frequencies of 18,000 Hz and 18,010 Hz to the left and right ears, respectively. A power spectrum analysis was performed to estimate the mean of the absolute power of the alpha frequency range (8-13 Hz). The variation in the mean alpha power during the rest and stimulation phases in each brain area was compared using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Compared to the rest phase, the stimulation phase with BB showed an increasing trend in the mean alpha power across all 5 brain areas. Notably, a significant increase was found in the frontal, central, and temporal areas. This is a significant study in that it determines the effects of only BB without the influence of auditory perception, which has been overlooked in previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Hyun Choi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jin-Ju Jung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kyu-Beom Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ye-Jin Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Je-Hyeop Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyung-Sik Kim
- Department of Mechatronics Engineering, School of ICT Convergence Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jeong-Han Yi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ok-Ri Kang
- GH-NH Co., Ltd, Gwangmyeong-si, South Korea
| | | | - Soon-Cheol Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Science & Technology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
- *Correspondence: Soon-Cheol Chung, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Research Institute of Biomedical Engineering, School of ICT Convergence Engineering, College of Science and Technology, Konkuk University, 268 Chungwon-daero, Chungju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do 27478, South Korea (e-mail: )
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Dabiri R, Monazzam Esmaielpour MR, Salmani Nodoushan M, khaneshenas F, Zakerian SA. The effect of auditory stimulation using delta binaural beat for a better sleep and post-sleep mood: A pilot study. Digit Health 2022; 8:20552076221102243. [PMID: 35615269 PMCID: PMC9125055 DOI: 10.1177/20552076221102243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although previous evidence confirms the effects of sleep deprivation on mental health and wellbeing, due to the interaction effects of sleep and mood on each other, the influence of sleep improvement has received less attention. Objective This study aimed to find whether binaural beat technology can enhance sleep quality and thus post-sleep mood. Methods Twenty healthy students participated in this pilot study. All subjects were investigated for two weeks (a baseline week and an experimental week). In the first week, there was no intervention, but in the second week, all subjects were exposed to a 90 min binaural beat in the delta frequency range. The individuals’ sleep was monitored for two weeks using a sleep diary form, and a Profile of Mood State questionnaire was employed to assess their mood at the end of the first and second weeks. Results Auditory stimulation with delta binaural beat enhanced sleep parameters such as sleep failure, the number of awakenings, real duration of sleep, sleep quality, and feeling following the waking of the individuals. Finally, students’ moods improved by reducing anxiety and anger, but other mood parameters did not indicate a significant difference. Conclusion The findings of this study confirmed that auditory stimulation with a delta binaural beat seems to be a low-cost and alternative method for medicine and other treatment methods with side effects. Application This study demonstrates the use of technology with a neuroergonomics approach to improve sleep and mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roya Dabiri
- Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Sadeghijam M, Talebian S, Mohsen S, Akbari M, Pourbakht A. Shannon entropy measures for EEG signals in tinnitus. Neurosci Lett 2021; 762:136153. [PMID: 34352341 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.136153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Tinnitus is known as a common clinical symptom, and it comprehensively is essential to understand the underlying mechanisms. Time-varying EEG is considered an appropriate technique to explore brain regions and related activities, and nonlinear methods may extract the irregularities in the EEG signal and gather more expanded information. Therefore, we studied Shannon Entropy in EEG raw data obtained from normal subjects and compared it to data from chronic tinnitus sufferers before and after an intervention. METHODS From the qEEG database of Iran University of Medical Sciences, the School of Rehabilitation Sciences, we have selected 23 healthy and 24 chronic tinnitus subjects. Nineteen subjects of the tinnitus group had benefited from a complete course of sound therapy (binaural beat for a month). QEEGs were measured with a 27-channel EEG amplifier in the sitting and eye-closed position for 3 min. Shannon entropy was investigated for all electrodes separately and compared among groups using a one-way ANOVA statistical test. FINDINGS Our results revealed a significant difference between healthy and tinnitus subjects (p < 0.05). Post-hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni test showed increased entropy in the tinnitus group for all electrodes (p < 0.05) at low frequencies and most electrodes at mid frequencies. In addition, after the intervention, paired t-test showed a reduction in entropy to somehow above normal control levels for all electrodes at low-frequencies. Such results were accompanying clinical improvement after the intervention. CONCLUSION The increased entropy in tinnitus patients might reflect the chaotic behavior of the brain. Nonlinear methods in EEG studies (Entropy) could be of great importance in understanding tinnitus neurophysiology and might potentially be a suitable criterion for clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Sadeghijam
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeed Talebian
- Motor Control Laboratory, School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Samer Mohsen
- Department of Otolaryngology, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Audiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Damascus University, Damascus, Syria
| | - Mehdi Akbari
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Akram Pourbakht
- Department of Audiology, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Shamsi E, Ahmadi-Pajouh MA, Seifi Ala T. Higuchi fractal dimension: An efficient approach to detection of brain entrainment to theta binaural beats. Biomed Signal Process Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2021.102580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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孙 慧, 冯 国, 高 志. [Clinical application of sound therapy in chronic subjective tinnitus]. LIN CHUANG ER BI YAN HOU TOU JING WAI KE ZA ZHI = JOURNAL OF CLINICAL OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY, HEAD, AND NECK SURGERY 2021; 35:282-285. [PMID: 33794620 PMCID: PMC10128241 DOI: 10.13201/j.issn.2096-7993.2021.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Chronic subjective tinnitus is an auditory phantom phenomenon perceived by patients only, with no external sound source. It's a common disease and it lacks effective treatments. Sound therapy is an optional treatment which proved to reduce the tinnitus loudness and the negative effects on life. After decades of development, a wide variety of acoustic therapies have been produced, but seldom are likely to thoroughly cure tinnitus. In recent years, some new acoustic treatments based on the hypothesis of mechanisms of tinnitus, are expected to alleviate or even eliminate tinnitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- 慧颖 孙
- 中国医学科学院北京协和医学院 北京协和医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科(北京,100730)
| | - 国栋 冯
- 中国医学科学院北京协和医学院 北京协和医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科(北京,100730)
| | - 志强 高
- 中国医学科学院北京协和医学院 北京协和医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科(北京,100730)
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Lee M, Song CB, Shin GH, Lee SW. Possible Effect of Binaural Beat Combined With Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response for Inducing Sleep. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:425. [PMID: 31849629 PMCID: PMC6900908 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep is important to maintain physical and cognitive functions in everyday life. However, the prevalence of sleep disorders is on the rise. One existing solution to this problem is to induce sleep using an auditory stimulus. When we listen to acoustic beats of two tones in each ear simultaneously, a binaural beat is generated which induces brain signals at a specific desired frequency. However, this auditory stimulus is uncomfortable for users to listen to induce sleep. To overcome this difficulty, we can exploit the feelings of calmness and relaxation that are induced by the perceptual phenomenon of autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR). In this study, we proposed a novel auditory stimulus for inducing sleep. Specifically, we used a 6 Hz binaural beat corresponding to the center of the theta band (4-8 Hz), which is the frequency at which brain activity is entrained during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) in sleep stage 1. In addition, the "ASMR triggers" that cause ASMR were presented from natural sound as the sensory stimuli. In session 1, we combined two auditory stimuli (the 6 Hz binaural beat and ASMR triggers) at three-decibel ratios to find the optimal combination ratio. As a result, we determined that the combination of a 30:60 dB ratio of binaural beat to ASMR trigger is most effective for inducing theta power and psychological stability. In session 2, the effects of these combined stimuli (CS) were compared with an only binaural beat, only the ASMR trigger, or a sham condition. The combination stimulus retained the advantages of the binaural beat and resolved its shortcomings with the ASMR triggers, including psychological self-reports. Our findings indicate that the proposed auditory stimulus could induce the brain signals required for sleep, while simultaneously keeping the user in a psychologically comfortable state. This technology provides an important opportunity to develop a novel method for increasing the quality of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minji Lee
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Chae-Bin Song
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Gi-Hwan Shin
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Seong-Whan Lee
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
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