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Liu Y, Tang SC, Li CH, To KF, Li B, Chan SL, Wong CH, Chen Y. The molecular mechanism underlying KRAS regulation on STK31 expression in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Cancer Sci 2024; 115:3288-3304. [PMID: 39054797 PMCID: PMC11447899 DOI: 10.1111/cas.16286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
KRAS gene mutations are common in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), but targeting mutant KRAS is still challenging. Here, an endoribonuclease-prepared small interfering RNA (esiRNA) library was used to screen new kinases that play critical roles in PDAC driven by KRAS gene mutations, and serine/threonine kinase 31 (STK31) was identified and characterized as a potential therapeutic target for KRAS-mutant PDAC. Our results showed that STK31 was upregulated in KRAS-mutant PDAC patients with poor survival and highly expressed in PDAC cell lines with KRASG12D mutation. Inhibition of STK31 in KRAS-mutant cell lines significantly reduced PDAC cell growth in vitro and hindered tumor growth in vivo. Gain and loss of function experiments revealed that STK31 is a downstream target of KRAS in PDAC. A pharmacological inhibition assay showed MAPK/ERK signaling involved in STK31 regulation. The further mechanistic study validated that c-Jun, regulated by KRAS/MAPK signaling, directly modulates the transcription level of STK31 by binding to its promoter region. Through RNA sequencing, we found that the cell cycle regulators CCNB1 and CDC25C are downstream targets of STK31. Taken together, our results indicate that STK31, which is the downstream target of the KRAS/MAPK/ERK/c-Jun signaling pathway in KRAS-mutant PDAC, promotes PDAC cell growth by modulating the expression of the cell cycle regulators CCNB1 and CDC25C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Liu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau University Joint Laboratory of Digestive Cancer Research, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Shing Chun Tang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi Han Li
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ka Fai To
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Bo Li
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau University Joint Laboratory of Digestive Cancer Research, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digestive Cancer Research, Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Stephen Lam Chan
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi Hin Wong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yangchao Chen
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
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2
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Casacuberta-Serra S, González-Larreategui Í, Capitán-Leo D, Soucek L. MYC and KRAS cooperation: from historical challenges to therapeutic opportunities in cancer. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:205. [PMID: 39164274 PMCID: PMC11336233 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-024-01907-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024] Open
Abstract
RAS and MYC rank amongst the most commonly altered oncogenes in cancer, with RAS being the most frequently mutated and MYC the most amplified. The cooperative interplay between RAS and MYC constitutes a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, profoundly influencing tumor development. Together and individually, these two oncogenes regulate most, if not all, hallmarks of cancer, including cell death escape, replicative immortality, tumor-associated angiogenesis, cell invasion and metastasis, metabolic adaptation, and immune evasion. Due to their frequent alteration and role in tumorigenesis, MYC and RAS emerge as highly appealing targets in cancer therapy. However, due to their complex nature, both oncogenes have been long considered "undruggable" and, until recently, no drugs directly targeting them had reached the clinic. This review aims to shed light on their complex partnership, with special attention to their active collaboration in fostering an immunosuppressive milieu and driving immunotherapeutic resistance in cancer. Within this review, we also present an update on the different inhibitors targeting RAS and MYC currently undergoing clinical trials, along with their clinical outcomes and the different combination strategies being explored to overcome drug resistance. This recent clinical development suggests a paradigm shift in the long-standing belief of RAS and MYC "undruggability", hinting at a new era in their therapeutic targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Íñigo González-Larreategui
- Models of cancer therapies Laboratory, Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology, Cellex Centre, Hospital University Vall d'Hebron Campus, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Capitán-Leo
- Models of cancer therapies Laboratory, Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology, Cellex Centre, Hospital University Vall d'Hebron Campus, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Soucek
- Peptomyc S.L., Barcelona, Spain.
- Models of cancer therapies Laboratory, Vall d'Hebron Institute of Oncology, Cellex Centre, Hospital University Vall d'Hebron Campus, Barcelona, Spain.
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Barcelona, Spain.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain.
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3
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Golivi Y, Kumari S, Farran B, Alam A, Peela S, Nagaraju GP. Small molecular inhibitors: Therapeutic strategies for pancreatic cancer. Drug Discov Today 2024; 29:104053. [PMID: 38849028 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2024.104053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC), a disease with high heterogeneity and a dense stromal microenvironment, presents significant challenges and a bleak prognosis. Recent breakthroughs have illuminated the crucial interplay among RAS, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and hedgehog pathways in PC progression. Small molecular inhibitors have emerged as a potential solution with their advantages of oral administration and the ability to target intracellular and extracellular sites effectively. However, despite the US FDA approving over 100 small-molecule targeted antitumor drugs, challenges such as low response rates and drug resistance persist. This review delves into the possibility of using small molecules to treat persistent or spreading PC, highlighting the challenges and the urgent need for a diverse selection of inhibitors to develop more effective treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuvasri Golivi
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali University, Banasthali, RJ 304 022, India
| | - Seema Kumari
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, GIS, GITAM, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530045, India
| | - Batoul Farran
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Afroz Alam
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali University, Banasthali, RJ 304 022, India
| | - Sujatha Peela
- Department of Biotechnology, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University, Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh, 532001, India
| | - Ganji Purnachandra Nagaraju
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, School of Medicine, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA.
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4
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Sreter KB, Catarata MJ, von Laffert M, Frille A. Resistance to KRAS inhibition in advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Front Oncol 2024; 14:1357898. [PMID: 38846975 PMCID: PMC11153770 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2024.1357898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer death globally. More than 50% of new cases are diagnosed in an advanced or metastatic stage, thus contributing to the poor survival of such patients. Mutations in the KRAS (Kirsten rat sarcoma virus) gene occur in nearly a third of lung adenocarcinoma and have for decades been deemed an 'undruggable' target. Yet, in recent years, a growing number of small molecules, such as the GTPase inhibitors, has been investigated in clinical trials of lung cancer patients harboring KRAS mutations, yielding promising results with improved outcomes. Currently, there are only two approved targeted therapies (adagrasib and sotorasib) for advanced or metastatic KRAS-mutated NSCLC from the second-line setting onwards. In this narrative review, we will focus on KRAS, its molecular basis, the role of its co-mutations, clinical evidence for its inhibition, putative mutation to resistance, and future strategies to overcome resistance to KRAS inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Joana Catarata
- Pulmonology Department, Hospital de Braga, Braga, Portugal
- Tumour & Microenvironment Interactions Group, I3S-Institute for Health Research & Innovation, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Armin Frille
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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5
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Karachaliou A, Kotteas E, Fiste O, Syrigos K. Emerging Therapies in Kirsten Rat Sarcoma Virus (+) Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1447. [PMID: 38672529 PMCID: PMC11048139 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16081447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Kirsten rat sarcoma virus (KRAS) is the most frequently found oncogene in human cancers, including non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). For many years, KRAS was considered "undruggable" due to its structure and difficult targeting. However, the discovery of the switch II region in the KRAS-G12C-mutated protein has changed the therapeutic landscape with the design and development of novel direct KRAS-G12C inhibitors. Sotorasib and adagrasib are FDA-approved targeted agents for pre-treated patients with KRAS-G12C-mutated NSCLC. Despite promising results, the efficacy of these novel inhibitors is limited by mechanisms of resistance. Ongoing studies are evaluating combination strategies for overcoming resistance. In this review, we summarize the biology of the KRAS protein and the characteristics of KRAS mutations. We then present current and emerging therapeutic approaches for targeting KRAS mutation subtypes intending to provide individualized treatment for lung cancer harboring this challenging driver mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Karachaliou
- Oncology Unit, Third Department of Internal Medicine and Laboratory, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, “Sotiria” General Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece; (E.K.); (O.F.); (K.S.)
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6
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Ash LJ, Busia-Bourdain O, Okpattah D, Kamel A, Liberchuk A, Wolfe AL. KRAS: Biology, Inhibition, and Mechanisms of Inhibitor Resistance. Curr Oncol 2024; 31:2024-2046. [PMID: 38668053 PMCID: PMC11049385 DOI: 10.3390/curroncol31040150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
KRAS is a small GTPase that is among the most commonly mutated oncogenes in cancer. Here, we discuss KRAS biology, therapeutic avenues to target it, and mechanisms of resistance that tumors employ in response to KRAS inhibition. Several strategies are under investigation for inhibiting oncogenic KRAS, including small molecule compounds targeting specific KRAS mutations, pan-KRAS inhibitors, PROTACs, siRNAs, PNAs, and mutant KRAS-specific immunostimulatory strategies. A central challenge to therapeutic effectiveness is the frequent development of resistance to these treatments. Direct resistance mechanisms can involve KRAS mutations that reduce drug efficacy or copy number alterations that increase the expression of mutant KRAS. Indirect resistance mechanisms arise from mutations that can rescue mutant KRAS-dependent cells either by reactivating the same signaling or via alternative pathways. Further, non-mutational forms of resistance can take the form of epigenetic marks, transcriptional reprogramming, or alterations within the tumor microenvironment. As the possible strategies to inhibit KRAS expand, understanding the nuances of resistance mechanisms is paramount to the development of both enhanced therapeutics and innovative drug combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard J. Ash
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Subprogram of the Biology Ph.D. Program, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Ottavia Busia-Bourdain
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Daniel Okpattah
- Biochemistry Ph.D. Program, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Avrosina Kamel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Macaulay Honors College, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Ariel Liberchuk
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Macaulay Honors College, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Andrew L. Wolfe
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Subprogram of the Biology Ph.D. Program, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
- Biochemistry Ph.D. Program, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
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7
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Katopodi T, Petanidis S, Grigoriadou E, Anestakis D, Charalampidis C, Chatziprodromidou I, Floros G, Eskitzis P, Zarogoulidis P, Koulouris C, Sevva C, Papadopoulos K, Roulia P, Mantalovas S, Dagher M, Karakousis AV, Varsamis N, Vlassopoulos K, Theodorou V, Mystakidou CM, Katsios NI, Farmakis K, Kosmidis C. Immune Specific and Tumor-Dependent mRNA Vaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy: Reprogramming Clinical Translation into Tumor Editing Therapy. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:455. [PMID: 38675116 PMCID: PMC11053579 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16040455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Extensive research into mRNA vaccines for cancer therapy in preclinical and clinical trials has prepared the ground for the quick development of immune-specific mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therapeutic cancer vaccines based on mRNA are well tolerated, and are an attractive choice for future cancer immunotherapy. Ideal personalized tumor-dependent mRNA vaccines could stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity by overcoming cancer-induced immune suppression and tumor relapse. The stability, structure, and distribution strategies of mRNA-based vaccines have been improved by technological innovations, and patients with diverse tumor types are now being enrolled in numerous clinical trials investigating mRNA vaccine therapy. Despite the fact that therapeutic mRNA-based cancer vaccines have not yet received clinical approval, early clinical trials with mRNA vaccines as monotherapy and in conjunction with checkpoint inhibitors have shown promising results. In this review, we analyze the most recent clinical developments in mRNA-based cancer vaccines and discuss the optimal platforms for the creation of mRNA vaccines. We also discuss the development of the cancer vaccines' clinical research, paying particular attention to their clinical use and therapeutic efficacy, which could facilitate the design of mRNA-based vaccines in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Katopodi
- Laboratory of Medical Biology and Genetics, Department of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (T.K.); (E.G.)
| | - Savvas Petanidis
- Laboratory of Medical Biology and Genetics, Department of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (T.K.); (E.G.)
- Department of Pulmonology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow 119992, Russia
| | - Eirini Grigoriadou
- Laboratory of Medical Biology and Genetics, Department of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (T.K.); (E.G.)
| | - Doxakis Anestakis
- Department of Anatomy, Medical School, University of Cyprus, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus; (D.A.); (C.C.)
| | | | | | - George Floros
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Thessaly, 38334 Volos, Greece;
| | - Panagiotis Eskitzis
- Department of Obstetrics, University of Western Macedonia, 50100 Kozani, Greece;
| | - Paul Zarogoulidis
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Charilaos Koulouris
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Christina Sevva
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Konstantinos Papadopoulos
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Panagiota Roulia
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Stylianos Mantalovas
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Marios Dagher
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | - Alexandros Vasileios Karakousis
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
| | | | - Konstantinos Vlassopoulos
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (K.V.); (V.T.); (C.M.M.)
| | - Vasiliki Theodorou
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (K.V.); (V.T.); (C.M.M.)
| | - Chrysi Maria Mystakidou
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (K.V.); (V.T.); (C.M.M.)
| | - Nikolaos Iason Katsios
- Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece;
| | - Konstantinos Farmakis
- Pediatric Surgery Clinic, General Hospital of Thessaloniki “G. Gennimatas”, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54635 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | - Christoforos Kosmidis
- Third Department of Surgery, “AHEPA” University Hospital, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 55236 Thessaloniki, Greece; (P.Z.); (C.K.); (C.S.); (K.P.); (S.M.); (M.D.); (A.V.K.); (C.K.)
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Feng Z, Zhang X, Zhou J, Li Q, Chu L, Di G, Xu Z, Chen Q, Wang M, Jiang X, Xia H, Chen X. An in vitro-transcribed circular RNA targets the mitochondrial inner membrane cardiolipin to ablate EIF4G2 +/PTBP1 + pan-adenocarcinoma. NATURE CANCER 2024; 5:30-46. [PMID: 37845485 DOI: 10.1038/s43018-023-00650-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
In vitro-transcribed (IVT) mRNA has arisen as a rapid method for the production of nucleic acid drugs. Here, we have constructed an oncolytic IVT mRNA that utilizes human rhinovirus type 2 (HRV2) internal ribosomal entry sites (IRESs) to selectively trigger translation in cancer cells with high expression of EIF4G2 and PTBP1. The oncolytic effect was provided by a long hGSDMDc .825 T>A/c.884 A>G-F1LCT mutant mRNA sequence with mitochondrial inner membrane cardiolipin targeting toxicity that triggers mitophagy. Utilizing the permuted intron-exon (PIE) splicing circularization strategy and lipid nanoparticle (LNP) encapsulation reduced immunogenicity of the mRNA and enabled delivery to eukaryotic cells in vivo. Engineered HRV2 IRESs-GSDMDp.D275E/E295G-F1LCT circRNA-LNPs (GSDMDENG circRNA) successfully inhibited EIF4G2+/PTBP1+ pan-adenocarcinoma xenografts growth. Importantly, in a spontaneous tumor model with abnormal EIF4G2 and PTBP1 caused by KRAS G12D mutation, GSDMDENG circRNA significantly prevented the occurrence of pancreatic, lung and colon adenocarcinoma, improved the survival rate and induced persistent KRAS G12D tumor antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zunyong Feng
- The Translational Research Institute for Neurological Disorders & Interdisciplinary Research Center of Neuromedicine and Chemical Biology of Wannan Medical College, Department of Neurosurgery, Department of Intensive Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College (Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College), Wuhu, China
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine & School of Biological Sciences and Medical Engineering, Advanced Institute for Life and Health & Interdisciplinary Innovation Institute for Medicine and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
- Departments of Diagnostic Radiology, Surgery, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Biomedical Engineering, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine and College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Clinical Imaging Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Nanomedicine Translational Research Program, NUS Center for Nanomedicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), Proteos, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xuanbo Zhang
- Departments of Diagnostic Radiology, Surgery, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Biomedical Engineering, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine and College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Clinical Imaging Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Nanomedicine Translational Research Program, NUS Center for Nanomedicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), Proteos, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jing Zhou
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine & School of Medical Imageology, Anhui Province Key laboratory of Active Biological Macro-molecules Research, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
| | - Qiang Li
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine & School of Medical Imageology, Anhui Province Key laboratory of Active Biological Macro-molecules Research, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
| | - Liuxi Chu
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine & School of Biological Sciences and Medical Engineering, Advanced Institute for Life and Health & Interdisciplinary Innovation Institute for Medicine and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guangfu Di
- The Translational Research Institute for Neurological Disorders & Interdisciplinary Research Center of Neuromedicine and Chemical Biology of Wannan Medical College, Department of Neurosurgery, Department of Intensive Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College (Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College), Wuhu, China
| | - Zhengyuan Xu
- Department of Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine & School of Medical Imageology, Anhui Province Key laboratory of Active Biological Macro-molecules Research, Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China
| | - Qun Chen
- The Translational Research Institute for Neurological Disorders & Interdisciplinary Research Center of Neuromedicine and Chemical Biology of Wannan Medical College, Department of Neurosurgery, Department of Intensive Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College (Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College), Wuhu, China
| | - Ming Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiaochun Jiang
- The Translational Research Institute for Neurological Disorders & Interdisciplinary Research Center of Neuromedicine and Chemical Biology of Wannan Medical College, Department of Neurosurgery, Department of Intensive Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College (Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College), Wuhu, China.
| | - Hongping Xia
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine & School of Biological Sciences and Medical Engineering, Advanced Institute for Life and Health & Interdisciplinary Innovation Institute for Medicine and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
- Department of Pathology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College & Key Laboratory of Antibody Technique of National Health Commission & Jiangsu Antibody Drug Engineering Research Center, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Xiaoyuan Chen
- Departments of Diagnostic Radiology, Surgery, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Biomedical Engineering, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine and College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Clinical Imaging Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Nanomedicine Translational Research Program, NUS Center for Nanomedicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), Proteos, Singapore, Singapore.
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9
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Tripathi PK, Mittal KR, Jain N, Sharma N, Jain CK. KRAS Pathways: A Potential Gateway for Cancer Therapeutics and Diagnostics. Recent Pat Anticancer Drug Discov 2024; 19:268-279. [PMID: 37038676 DOI: 10.2174/1574892818666230406085120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
One of the major disturbing pathways within cancer is "The Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) pathway", and it has recently been demonstrated to be the most crucial in therapies and diagnostics. KRAS pathway includes numerous genes. This multi-component signaling system promotes cell growth, division, survival, and death by transferring signals from outside the cell to its interior. KRAS regulates the activation of a variety of signaling molecules. The KRAS oncogene is a key player in advancing a wide range of malignancies, and the mutation rank of this gene is a key feature of several tumors. For some malignancies, the mutation type of the gene may offer information about prognostic, clinical, and predictive. KRAS belongs to the RAS oncogene family, which consists of a compilation of minor GTP-binding proteins that assimilate environmental inputs and trigger internal signaling pathways that control survival, cell differentiation, and proliferation. This review aims to examine the recent and fascinating breakthroughs in the identification of new therapies that target KRAS, including the ever-expanding experimental approaches for reducing KRAS activity and signaling as well as direct targeting of KRAS. A literature survey was performed. All the relevant articles and patents related to the KRAS pathway, the mutation in the KRAS gene, cancer treatment, and diagnostics were found on PubMed and Google Patents. One of the most prevalent causes of cancer in humans is a mutation in the K-RAS protein. It is extremely difficult to decipher KRAS-mediated signaling. It allows transducing signals to go from the cell's outer surface to its nucleus, having an influence on a variety of crucial cellular functions including cell chemotaxis, division, dissemination, and cell death. Other involved signaling pathways are RAF, and the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase also known as AKT. The EGFR pathway is incomplete without KRAS. The activation of PI3K significantly contributes to acquiring resistance to a mixture of MEK inhibitors and anti-EGFR in colorectal cancer cell lines which are mutated by KRAS. A series of recent patent studies towards cancer diagnostics and therapeutics reveals the paramount importance of mutated protein KRAS as an extensive driver in human tumors. For the prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment of colorectal cancer, KRAS plays a critical role. This review concludes the latest and vowing developments in the discovery of novel techniques for diagnosis and drugs that target KRAS, the advancements in experimental techniques for signaling and inhibiting KRAS function, and the direct targeting of KRAS for cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pankaj Kumar Tripathi
- Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, A-10, Sector-62 Noida, 201307, India
| | - Khushi R Mittal
- Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, A-10, Sector-62 Noida, 201307, India
| | - Nandini Jain
- Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, A-10, Sector-62 Noida, 201307, India
| | - Naveen Sharma
- Divion of Bioinformatics, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, 110029, India
| | - Chakresh Kumar Jain
- Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, A-10, Sector-62 Noida, 201307, India
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10
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Hou X, Zhou C, Liang Z, Qiu H, Zhou Z, Zheng H, Li Z, Wang Y, Qi X, Lu L, Cao Y, Zheng J. Salvianolic acid F suppresses KRAS-dependent lung cancer cell growth through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 121:155093. [PMID: 37783131 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2023.155093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND KRAS mutation is a common driver of NSCLC, and there is a high proportion of lung cancer patients with KRAS G12C and G12D mutation. KRAS was previously considered an "undruggable" target, but the first KRAS G12C mutation-targeted drug AMG510, entered the market in 2021. However, treatments for G12D mutant tumors remain to be discovered. Salvianolic acid F (SalF), a monomer derived from the traditional Chinese medicine Salvia miltiorrhiza (SM), and KRAS had high binding affinity, especially for KRAS G12D. There is an urgent need to investigate effective and safe novel targeted therapies against KRAS G12D-driven NSCLC. METHODS To evaluate the anticancer effect of SalF, we used KRAS-overexpressing lung cancer cells in vitro, a subcutaneous transplant tumor model, and KRAS G12D mice model in vivo. Then, the binding effect of SalF and KRAS was investigated using molecular docking, proteolytic assays and protein thermal shift assays. More critically, the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in the lung was investigated utilizing RT-qPCR and Western Blotting. RESULTS This is the first study to evaluate the anticancer effect of SalF on KRAS-overexpressing lung cancer cells or KRAS G12D lung tumors in vivo. We demonstrated that SalF inhibits OE-KRAS A549 cell migration, proliferation and promotes apoptosis in vitro. In addition, we used a subcutaneous transplant tumor model to show that SalF suppresses the growth of lung cancer cells in vivo. Interestingly, our group found that SalF was strongly bound to G12D and could decrease the stability and promoted the degradation of the KRAS G12D mutant through molecular docking, proteolytic assays and protein thermal shift assays. Further research demonstrated that in the KrasG12D mice model, after SalF treatment, the number and size of mouse lung tumors were significantly reduced. More importantly, SalF can promote apoptosis by inhibiting downstream PI3K/AKT signaling pathway activation. CONCLUSION SalF activated apoptosis signaling pathways, suppressed anti-apoptotic genes, and inhibited lung cancer cell growth. These datas suggested that SalF could effectively inhibit the growth of lung tumors with KRAS G12D mutation. SalF may be a novel inhibitor against KRAS G12D, providing a strong theoretical basis for the clinical treatment of lung cancer with KRAS mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuenan Hou
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China; The First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510405, China; The First Clinical Medical School, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510405, China
| | - Chishun Zhou
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Zuhui Liang
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Huawei Qiu
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Zhuming Zhou
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Huanjin Zheng
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Zeyun Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510405, China; The First Clinical Medical School, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510405, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Qi
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China
| | - Linlin Lu
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China.
| | - Yang Cao
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510405, China; The First Clinical Medical School, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510405, China.
| | - Jing Zheng
- Joint Laboratory for Translational Cancer Research of Chinese Medicine of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, International Institute for Translational Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510006, China.
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11
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Batrash F, Kutmah M, Zhang J. The current landscape of using direct inhibitors to target KRAS G12C-mutated NSCLC. Exp Hematol Oncol 2023; 12:93. [PMID: 37925476 PMCID: PMC10625227 DOI: 10.1186/s40164-023-00453-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutation in KRAS protooncogene represents one of the most common genetic alterations in NSCLC and has posed a great therapeutic challenge over the past ~ 40 years since its discovery. However, the pioneer work from Shokat's lab in 2013 has led to a recent wave of direct KRASG12C inhibitors that utilize the switch II pocket identified. Notably, two of the inhibitors have recently received US FDA approval for their use in the treatment of KRASG12C mutant NSCLC. Despite this success, there remains the challenge of combating the resistance that cell lines, xenografts, and patients have exhibited while treated with KRASG12C inhibitors. This review discusses the varying mechanisms of resistance that limit long-lasting effective treatment of those direct inhibitors and highlights several novel therapeutic approaches including a new class of KRASG12C (ON) inhibitors, combinational therapies across the same and different pathways, and combination with immunotherapy/chemotherapy as possible solutions to the pressing question of adaptive resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firas Batrash
- School of Medicine, University of Missouri Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, 64108, USA
| | - Mahmoud Kutmah
- School of Medicine, University of Missouri Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, 64108, USA
| | - Jun Zhang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA.
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA.
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12
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Ramalingam PS, Arumugam S. Computational design and validation of effective siRNAs to silence oncogenic KRAS. 3 Biotech 2023; 13:350. [PMID: 37780803 PMCID: PMC10541393 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-023-03767-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncogenic KRAS mutations drive cancer progression in lung, colon, breast, and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas. Apart from the current strategies, such as KRAS upstream inhibitors, downstream effector inhibitors, interaction inhibitors, cell cycle inhibitors, and direct KRAS inhibitors, against KRAS-mutated cancers, the therapeutic small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) represent a promising alternative strategy that directly binds with the target mRNA and inhibits protein translation via mRNA degradation. Here, in the present study, we utilized various in silico approaches to design potential siRNA candidates against KRAS mRNA. We have predicted nearly 17 siRNAs against the KRAS mRNA, and further through various criteria, such as U, R, and A rules, GC%, secondary structure formation, mRNA-siRNA duplex stability, Tm (Cp), Tm (Conc), and inhibition efficiency, they have been filtered into 4 potential siRNAs namely siRNA8, siRNA11, siRNA12, and siRNA17. Further, the molecular docking analysis revealed that the siRNA8, siRNA11, siRNA12, and siRNA17 showed higher negative binding energies, such as - 379.13 kcal/mol, - 360.19 kcal/mol, - 288.47 kcal/mol, and - 329.76 kcal/mol, toward the human Argonaute2 protein (hAgo2) respectively. In addition, the normal mode analysis of the hAgo2-siRNAs complexes indicates the structural changes and deformation of the hAgo2 protein upon the binding of siRNA molecules in the dynamic environment which suggests that these siRNAs could be effective. Finally, we conclude that these 4 siRNAs have therapeutic potential against KRAS mRNA and also have to be studied in vitro and in vivo to evaluate their specificity toward mutant KRAS (not degrading wild-type KRAS). Also, the current challenges in the use of siRNA therapeutics could be overcome by the emerging siRNA delivery methods, such as Antibody-siRNA conjugates (ARCs) and Gelatin-Antibody Delivery System (GADS), in the near future and these siRNAs could be employed as potential therapeutic agents against KRAS-mutated cancers. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03767-w.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sivakumar Arumugam
- Protein Engineering Lab, School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
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13
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Jafri HSMO, Mushtaq S, Baig S, Bhatty A, Siraj S. Comparison of KRAS gene in circulating tumor DNA levels vs histological grading of colorectal cancer patients through liquid biopsy. Saudi J Gastroenterol 2023; 29:371-375. [PMID: 37602638 PMCID: PMC10754382 DOI: 10.4103/sjg.sjg_85_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background To determine KRAS gene in circulating tumor DNA in comparison with histological grading through liquid biopsy in colorectal cancer patients. Methods This dual-centered cross-sectional study included 73 diagnosed patients of colorectal cancer at different grading levels [Grade I, well differentiated (n = 7, 9.5%); Grade II, moderately differentiated (n = 14,18.9%); and Grade III, poorly differentiated (n = 52, 70%)]. Blood was collected, and plasma was separated. ctDNA was extracted, using magnetic bead-based technique (MagMAX Cell-Free DNA kit). KRAS gene was quantified through qPCR. STRING database was used to find KRAS interactomes. Results Mean threshold cycle (CT value) of KRAS gene in Grade III samples showed significantly higher (P = 0.001) levels of ctDNA (2.7 ± 1.14) compared with Grade II and Grade I (3.1 ± 0.68, 2.3 ± 0.60), respectively. Grading characterization showed that rectal cancer (n = 22, 42.3%) with Grade III (68.8%) was more prevalent than colon and sigmoid cancer (n = 19, 36.5%, n = 11, 21%, respectively). STRING database showed 10 functional genes interacting with KRAS expressed as gene/proteins. Conclusion Liquid biopsy can be used to detect ctDNA in plasma of CRC patients and enabled to detect the KRAS gene by qPCR. The technique being less invasive and cost-effective is convenient for multiple biopsies in different cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shamim Mushtaq
- Department of Biochemistry, Basic Health Sciences, Ziauddin University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Saeeda Baig
- Department of Biochemistry, Basic Health Sciences, Ziauddin University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Afreen Bhatty
- Department of Biochemistry, Basic Health Sciences, Ziauddin University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Sabra Siraj
- Department of Pharmacology, Basic Health Sciences, Ziauddin University, Karachi, Pakistan
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14
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Ramalingam PS, Arumugam S. Reverse vaccinology and immunoinformatics approaches to design multi-epitope based vaccine against oncogenic KRAS. Med Oncol 2023; 40:283. [PMID: 37644143 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-023-02160-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Mutant KRAS-induced tumorigenesis is highly involved in the progression of pancreatic, lung, and breast cancer. Comparatively, KRAS G12D and KRAS G12C are the most frequent mutations that promote cancer progression and aggressiveness. Although KRAS mutant inhibitors exhibit significant therapeutic potential, day by day, they are becoming resistant among patients. Multi-epitope based cancer vaccines are a promising alternative strategy that induces an immune response against tumor antigens. In the present study, we have designed, constructed, and validated a novel multi-epitope vaccine construct against KRAS G12D and G12C mutants using reverse vaccinology and immunoinformatics approaches. In addition, the vaccine construct was structurally refined and showed significant physiochemical properties, and could induce an immune response. Furthermore, the optimized vaccine construct was cloned into a pET‑28a (+) expression vector through in silico cloning. Conclusively, the multi-epitope vaccine construct is structurally stable, soluble, antigenic, non‑allergic, and non‑toxic. Further, it has to be studied in in vitro and in vivo to evaluate its therapeutic efficacy against KRAS-mutated cancers in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sivakumar Arumugam
- Protein Engineering Lab, School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India.
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15
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Escher TE, Satchell KJF. RAS degraders: The new frontier for RAS-driven cancers. Mol Ther 2023; 31:1904-1919. [PMID: 36945775 PMCID: PMC10362401 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2023.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The function and significance of RAS proteins in cancer have been widely studied for decades. In 2013, the National Cancer Institute established the RAS Initiative to explore innovative approaches for attacking the proteins encoded by mutant forms of RAS genes and to create effective therapies for RAS-driven cancers. This initiative spurred researchers to develop novel approaches and to discover small molecules targeting this protein that was at one time termed "undruggable." More recently, advanced efforts in RAS degraders including PROTACs, linker-based degraders, and direct proteolysis degraders have been explored as novel strategies to target RAS for cancer treatment. These RAS degraders present new opportunities for RAS therapies and may prove fruitful in understanding basic cell biology. Novel delivery strategies will further enhance the efficacy of these therapeutics. In this review, we summarize recent efforts to develop RAS degraders, including PROTACs and E3 adaptor and ligase fusions as cancer therapies. This review also details the direct RAS protease degrader, RAS/RAP1-specific endopeptidase that directly and specifically cleaves RAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor E Escher
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Research Center, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Karla J F Satchell
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Research Center, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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16
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Wojtyś W, Oroń M. How Driver Oncogenes Shape and Are Shaped by Alternative Splicing Mechanisms in Tumors. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15112918. [PMID: 37296881 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15112918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of RNA sequencing methods has allowed us to study and better understand the landscape of aberrant pre-mRNA splicing in tumors. Altered splicing patterns are observed in many different tumors and affect all hallmarks of cancer: growth signal independence, avoidance of apoptosis, unlimited proliferation, invasiveness, angiogenesis, and metabolism. In this review, we focus on the interplay between driver oncogenes and alternative splicing in cancer. On one hand, oncogenic proteins-mutant p53, CMYC, KRAS, or PI3K-modify the alternative splicing landscape by regulating expression, phosphorylation, and interaction of splicing factors with spliceosome components. Some splicing factors-SRSF1 and hnRNPA1-are also driver oncogenes. At the same time, aberrant splicing activates key oncogenes and oncogenic pathways: p53 oncogenic isoforms, the RAS-RAF-MAPK pathway, the PI3K-mTOR pathway, the EGF and FGF receptor families, and SRSF1 splicing factor. The ultimate goal of cancer research is a better diagnosis and treatment of cancer patients. In the final part of this review, we discuss present therapeutic opportunities and possible directions of further studies aiming to design therapies targeting alternative splicing mechanisms in the context of driver oncogenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weronika Wojtyś
- Laboratory of Human Disease Multiomics, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Oroń
- Laboratory of Human Disease Multiomics, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawinskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
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Zhang Z, Zhang H, Liao X, Tsai HI. KRAS mutation: The booster of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma transformation and progression. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1147676. [PMID: 37152291 PMCID: PMC10157181 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1147676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the most common type of pancreatic cancer. It has a poor response to conventional therapy and has an extremely poor 5-year survival rate. PDAC is driven by multiple oncogene mutations, with the highest mutation frequency being observed in KRAS. The KRAS protein, which binds to GTP, has phosphokinase activity, which further activates downstream effectors. KRAS mutation contributes to cancer cell proliferation, metabolic reprogramming, immune escape, and therapy resistance in PDAC, acting as a critical driver of the disease. Thus, KRAS mutation is positively associated with poorer prognosis in pancreatic cancer patients. This review focus on the KRAS mutation patterns in PDAC, and further emphases its role in signal transduction, metabolic reprogramming, therapy resistance and prognosis, hoping to provide KRAS target therapy strategies for PDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zining Zhang
- Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Heng Zhang
- Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Xiang Liao
- Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Hsiang-i Tsai
- Institute of Medical Imaging and Artificial Intelligence, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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Fudalej M, Kwaśniewska D, Nurzyński P, Badowska-Kozakiewicz A, Mękal D, Czerw A, Sygit K, Deptała A. New Treatment Options in Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15082327. [PMID: 37190255 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15082327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC) is the seventh leading cause of cancer death across the world. Poor prognosis of PC is associated with several factors, such as diagnosis at an advanced stage, early distant metastases, and remarkable resistance to most conventional treatment options. The pathogenesis of PC seems to be significantly more complicated than originally assumed, and findings in other solid tumours cannot be extrapolated to this malignancy. To develop effective treatment schemes prolonging patient survival, a multidirectional approach encompassing different aspects of the cancer is needed. Particular directions have been established; however, further studies bringing them all together and connecting the strengths of each therapy are needed. This review summarises the current literature and provides an overview of new or emerging therapeutic strategies for the more effective management of metastatic PC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Fudalej
- Department of Oncology Propaedeutics, Medical University of Warsaw, 01-445 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Oncology, Central Clinical Hospital of the Ministry of Interior and Administration, 02-507 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Daria Kwaśniewska
- Department of Oncology, Central Clinical Hospital of the Ministry of Interior and Administration, 02-507 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paweł Nurzyński
- Department of Oncology, Central Clinical Hospital of the Ministry of Interior and Administration, 02-507 Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Dominika Mękal
- Department of Oncology Propaedeutics, Medical University of Warsaw, 01-445 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Czerw
- Department of Health Economics and Medical Law, Medical University of Warsaw, 01-445 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Economic and System Analyses, National Institute of Public Health NIH-National Research Institute, 00-791 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Sygit
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Calisia University, 62-800 Kalisz, Poland
| | - Andrzej Deptała
- Department of Oncology Propaedeutics, Medical University of Warsaw, 01-445 Warsaw, Poland
- Department of Oncology, Central Clinical Hospital of the Ministry of Interior and Administration, 02-507 Warsaw, Poland
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O’Sullivan É, Keogh A, Henderson B, Finn SP, Gray SG, Gately K. Treatment Strategies for KRAS-Mutated Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:1635. [PMID: 36980522 PMCID: PMC10046549 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15061635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Activating mutations in KRAS are highly prevalent in solid tumours and are frequently found in 35% of lung, 45% of colorectal, and up to 90% of pancreatic cancers. Mutated KRAS is a prognostic factor for disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) in NSCLC and is associated with a more aggressive clinical phenotype, highlighting the need for KRAS-targeted therapy. Once considered undruggable due to its smooth shallow surface, a breakthrough showed that the activated G12C-mutated KRAS isozyme can be directly inhibited via a newly identified switch II pocket. This discovery led to the development of a new class of selective small-molecule inhibitors against the KRAS G12C isoform. Sotorasib and adagrasib are approved in locally advanced or metastatic NSCLC patients who have received at least one prior systemic therapy. Currently, there are at least twelve KRAS G12C inhibitors being tested in clinical trials, either as a single agent or in combination. In this study, KRAS mutation prevalence, subtypes, rates of occurrence in treatment-resistant invasive mucinous adenocarcinomas (IMAs), and novel drug delivery options are reviewed. Additionally, the current status of KRAS inhibitors, multiple resistance mechanisms that limit efficacy, and their use in combination treatment strategies and novel multitargeted approaches in NSCLC are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Éabha O’Sullivan
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St. James’s Hospital, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland
| | - Anna Keogh
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Laboratory Medicine and Molecular Pathology, Central Pathology Laboratory, St. James’s Hospital, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brian Henderson
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St. James’s Hospital, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland
| | - Stephen P. Finn
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Laboratory Medicine and Molecular Pathology, Central Pathology Laboratory, St. James’s Hospital, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
| | - Steven G. Gray
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St. James’s Hospital, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Laboratory Medicine and Molecular Pathology, Central Pathology Laboratory, St. James’s Hospital, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kathy Gately
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St. James’s Hospital, D08 W9RT Dublin, Ireland
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Laboratory Medicine and Molecular Pathology, Central Pathology Laboratory, St. James’s Hospital, D08 RX0X Dublin, Ireland
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Identification of Dietary Bioflavonoids as Potential Inhibitors against KRAS G12D Mutant—Novel Insights from Computer-Aided Drug Discovery. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:2136-2156. [PMID: 36975507 PMCID: PMC10047893 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45030137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The KRAS G12D mutation is very frequent in many cancers, such as pancreatic, colon and lung, and has remained undruggable for the past three decades, due to its smooth surface and lack of suitable pockets. Recent small pieces of evidence suggest that targeting the switch I/II of KRAS G12D mutant could be an efficient strategy. Therefore, in the present study, we targeted the switch I (residues 25–40) and switch II (residues 57–76) regions of KRAS G12D with dietary bioflavonoids in comparison with the reference KRAS SI/II inhibitor BI-2852. Initially, we screened 925 bioflavonoids based on drug-likeness properties, and ADME properties and selected 514 bioflavonoids for further studies. Molecular docking resulted in four lead bioflavonoids, namely 5-Dehydroxyparatocarpin K (L1), Carpachromene (L2), Sanggenone H (L3), and Kuwanol C (L4) with binding affinities of 8.8 Kcal/mol, 8.64 Kcal/mol, 8.62 Kcal/mol, and 8.58 Kcal/mol, respectively, in comparison with BI-2852 (−8.59 Kcal/mol). Further steered-molecular dynamics, molecular-dynamics simulation, toxicity, and in silico cancer-cell-line cytotoxicity predictions significantly support these four lead bioflavonoids as potential inhibitors of KRAS G12D SI/SII inhibitors. We finally conclude that these four bioflavonoids have potential inhibitory activity against the KRAS G12D mutant, and are further to be studied in vitro and in vivo, to evaluate their therapeutic potential and the utility of these compounds against KRAS G12D mutated cancers.
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21
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Evolution of acquired resistance in a ROS1 + KRAS G12C + NSCLC through the MAPK pathway. NPJ Precis Oncol 2023; 7:9. [PMID: 36690705 PMCID: PMC9871013 DOI: 10.1038/s41698-023-00349-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with metastatic NSCLC bearing a ROS1 gene fusion usually experience prolonged disease control with ROS1-targeting tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI), but significant clinical heterogeneity exists in part due to the presence of co-occurring genomic alterations. Here, we report on a patient with metastatic NSCLC with a concurrent ROS1 fusion and KRAS p.G12C mutation at diagnosis who experienced a short duration of disease control on entrectinib, a ROS1 TKI. At progression, the patient continued entrectinib and started sotorasib, a small molecule inhibitor of KRAS p.G12C. A patient-derived cell line generated at progression on entrectinib demonstrated improved TKI responsiveness when treated with entrectinib and sotorasib. Cell-line growth dependence on both ROS1 and KRAS p.G12C was further reflected in the distinct downstream signaling pathways activated by each driver. Clinical benefit was not observed with combined therapy of entrectinib and sotorasib possibly related to an evolving KRAS p.G12C amplification identified on repeated molecular testing. This case supports the need for broad molecular profiling in patients with metastatic NSCLC for potential therapeutic and prognostic information.
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22
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Yang Y, Zhang H, Huang S, Chu Q. KRAS Mutations in Solid Tumors: Characteristics, Current Therapeutic Strategy, and Potential Treatment Exploration. J Clin Med 2023; 12:jcm12020709. [PMID: 36675641 PMCID: PMC9861148 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12020709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Kristen rat sarcoma (KRAS) gene is one of the most common mutated oncogenes in solid tumors. Yet, KRAS inhibitors did not follow suit with the development of targeted therapy, for the structure of KRAS has been considered as being implausible to target for decades. Chemotherapy was the initial recommended therapy for KRAS-mutant cancer patients, which was then replaced by or combined with immunotherapy. KRAS G12C inhibitors became the most recent breakthrough in targeted therapy, with Sotorasib being approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) based on its significant efficacy in multiple clinical studies. However, the subtypes of the KRAS mutations are complex, and the development of inhibitors targeting non-G12C subtypes is still at a relatively early stage. In addition, the monotherapy of KRAS inhibitors has accumulated possible resistance, acquiring the exploration of combination therapies or next-generation KRAS inhibitors. Thus, other non-target, conventional therapies have also been considered as being promising. Here in this review, we went through the characteristics of KRAS mutations in cancer patients, and the prognostic effect that it poses on different therapies and advanced therapeutic strategy, as well as cutting-edge research on the mechanisms of drug resistance, tumor development, and the immune microenvironment.
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23
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Yu I, Dakwar A, Takabe K. Immunotherapy: Recent Advances and Its Future as a Neoadjuvant, Adjuvant, and Primary Treatment in Colorectal Cancer. Cells 2023; 12:cells12020258. [PMID: 36672193 PMCID: PMC9856401 DOI: 10.3390/cells12020258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy in colorectal cancer (CRC) has made great strides within the past decade. Immune checkpoint inhibitors are a class of immunotherapy and have been shown to greatly improve patient outcomes in mismatch repair-deficient (dMMR) CRC. Now, they are part of the standard of care for this subset of CRC. Because of this, there has been a growing interest in the efficacy and timing of immunotherapy for other subsets of CRC, including locally advanced, metastatic, and microsatellite stable (MSS). In this review, we aim to examine the three main classes of immunotherapy for CRC-immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), adoptive cell transfer therapy (ACT), and tumor vaccines-and discuss the most recent advances and future directions for each.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Yu
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA
- Department of Surgery, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Anthony Dakwar
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA
- Department of Surgery, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Kazuaki Takabe
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA
- Department of Surgery, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama 236-0004, Japan
- Department of Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
- Department of Breast Surgery and Oncology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
- Department of Breast Surgery, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-716-845-5128
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24
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Rosen JC, Sacher A, Tsao MS. Direct GDP-KRAS G12C inhibitors and mechanisms of resistance: the tip of the iceberg. Ther Adv Med Oncol 2023; 15:17588359231160141. [PMID: 36950276 PMCID: PMC10026147 DOI: 10.1177/17588359231160141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog mutations are observed in 25% of lung adenocarcinoma and 40% of these are G12C mutations. Historically, no approved targeted agents were available for patients with any KRAS mutation, and response rates to standard-of-care therapies were suboptimal. Newly developed inhibitors directed toward KRASG12C have been successful in clinical trials with overall response rates ranging between 32% and 46%, and two FDA approvals were granted in May 2021 and December 2022 as second-line or later monotherapies. However, rapid tumor resistance complicates their use as a monotherapy. With the rapid development of this novel class of inhibitors, it is important to discern the different types of tumor resistance that may arise and how each can differently contribute to tumor growth and survival. G12C inhibitor resistance is under investigation and combinations of therapies with G12C inhibitors have been proposed. Much of this insight is gleaned from preclinical investigations, as our knowledge of clinical resistance is in its infancy. In this review, we summarize the preclinical development of KRASG12C inhibitors, their clinical evaluations, different types of resistance mechanisms to these compounds, and ways of overcoming them. Finally, we underscore the importance of basic and translational investigations of these molecules in a landscape where their clinical evaluations garner the most attention, and we set the stage for what is to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua C. Rosen
- Princess Margaret Hospital Cancer Centre,
University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and
Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto,
ON, Canada
| | - Adrian Sacher
- Princess Margaret Hospital Cancer Centre,
University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of
Medicine, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Temerty Faculty of Medicine,
University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Immunology, Temerty Faculty of
Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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25
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Rémond MS, Pellat A, Brezault C, Dhooge M, Coriat R. Are targeted therapies or immunotherapies effective in metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma? ESMO Open 2022; 7:100638. [PMID: 36399952 PMCID: PMC9674888 DOI: 10.1016/j.esmoop.2022.100638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a major health burden due to its increasing incidence and poor prognosis. PDAC is characterized by a low tumor mutational burden, and its molecular pathogenesis is driven by Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) mutations. Response to DNA damage through homologous repair is defective in 15% of tumors. Chemotherapy using FOLFIRINOX (folinic acid, fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatin) or gemcitabine-nab-paclitaxel significantly improves life expectancy, but the median overall survival remains <1 year. Targeted therapies are not efficient in the overall population of patients with metastatic PDAC. Improvements in overall survival or progression-free survival, however, have been demonstrated in subgroups carrying certain mutations. Maintenance therapy with poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors increases progression-free survival in patients with germline mutations in BRCA1/2. Sotorasib shows signs of efficacy against tumors carrying the KRAS G12C mutation, and targeted therapies may also benefit patients with KRAS-wild-type PDAC. Combining targeted therapies with chemotherapy holds promise because of potential synergistic effects. These associations, however, have not yet demonstrated clinical benefit. Checkpoint inhibitors are not effective against metastatic PDAC. Combined immunotherapies attempt to restore their efficacy but have not succeeded yet. Other immunotherapies are emerging such as therapeutic vaccines or chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, but these strategies remain to be evaluated in large trials. In the future, treatment personalization based on tumor-derived organoids could potentially further improve treatment efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Rémond
- Department of Gastroenterology, Cochin Hospital, Université de Paris, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France.
| | - A Pellat
- Department of Gastroenterology, Cochin Hospital, Université de Paris, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - C Brezault
- Department of Gastroenterology, Cochin Hospital, Université de Paris, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - M Dhooge
- Department of Gastroenterology, Cochin Hospital, Université de Paris, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - R Coriat
- Department of Gastroenterology, Cochin Hospital, Université de Paris, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
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26
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Bannoura SF, Khan HY, Azmi AS. KRAS G12D targeted therapies for pancreatic cancer: Has the fortress been conquered? Front Oncol 2022; 12:1013902. [PMID: 36531078 PMCID: PMC9749787 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1013902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 08/17/2023] Open
Abstract
KRAS mutations are among the most commonly occurring mutations in cancer. After being deemed undruggable for decades, KRAS G12C specific inhibitors showed that small molecule inhibitors can be developed against this notorious target. At the same time, there is still no agent that could target KRAS G12D which is the most common KRAS mutation and is found in the majority of KRAS-mutated pancreatic tumors. Nevertheless, significant progress is now being made in the G12D space with the development of several compounds that can bind to and inhibit KRAS G12D, most notably MRTX1133. Exciting advances in this field also include an immunotherapeutic approach that uses adoptive T-cell transfer to specifically target G12D in pancreatic cancer. In this mini-review, we discuss recent advances in KRAS G12D targeting and the potential for further clinical development of the various approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar F. Bannoura
- Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Husain Yar Khan
- Department of Oncology, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Asfar S. Azmi
- Department of Oncology, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States
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27
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Cascetta P, Marinello A, Lazzari C, Gregorc V, Planchard D, Bianco R, Normanno N, Morabito A. KRAS in NSCLC: State of the Art and Future Perspectives. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:5430. [PMID: 36358848 PMCID: PMC9656434 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14215430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In NSCLC, KRAS mutations occur in up to 30% of all cases, most frequently at codon 12 and 13. KRAS mutations have been linked to adenocarcinoma histology, positive smoking history, and Caucasian ethnicity, although differences have been described across KRAS mutational variants subtypes. KRAS mutations often concur with other molecular alterations, notably TP53, STK11, and KEAP1, which could play an important role in treatment efficacy and patient outcomes. For many years, KRAS mutations have been considered undruggable mainly due to a high toxicity profile and low specificity of compounds. Sotorasib and adagrasib are novel KRAS inhibitors that recently gained FDA approval for pre-treated KRAS mutant NSCLC patients, and other molecules such as GDC-6036 are currently being investigated with promising results. Despite their approval, the efficacy of these drugs is lower than expected and progression among responders has been reported. Mechanisms of acquired resistance to anti-KRAS molecules typically involves either on target secondary mutations (e.g., G12, G13, Q61H, R68S, H95, Y96C, V8L) or off-target alterations. Ongoing trials are currently evaluating strategies for implementing efficacy and overcoming acquired resistance to these compounds. Finally, the efficacy of immune-checkpoint inhibitors still needs to be completely assessed and responses to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 agents may strongly depend on concomitant mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Cascetta
- Department of Medical Oncology, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, 114 rue Edouard Vaillant, 94850 Villejuif, France
| | - Arianna Marinello
- Department of Medical Oncology, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, 114 rue Edouard Vaillant, 94850 Villejuif, France
- Department of Medical Oncology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy
| | - Chiara Lazzari
- Department of Medical Oncology, Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, 10060 Turin, Italy
| | - Vanesa Gregorc
- Department of Medical Oncology, Candiolo Cancer Institute, FPO-IRCCS, Candiolo, 10060 Turin, Italy
| | - David Planchard
- Department of Medical Oncology, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, 114 rue Edouard Vaillant, 94850 Villejuif, France
| | - Roberto Bianco
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Oncology Division, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Nicola Normanno
- Cellular Biology and Biotherapy, Istituto Nazionale Tumori, IRCCS, Fondazione G. Pascale, Via Mariano Semmola 53, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandro Morabito
- Thoracic Medical Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori, IRCCS, Fondazione G. Pascale, Via Mariano Semmola 53, 80131 Naples, Italy
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28
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Ha DP, Huang B, Wang H, Rangel DF, Van Krieken R, Liu Z, Samanta S, Neamati N, Lee AS. Targeting GRP78 suppresses oncogenic KRAS protein expression and reduces viability of cancer cells bearing various KRAS mutations. Neoplasia 2022; 33:100837. [PMID: 36162331 PMCID: PMC9516447 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2022.100837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
KRAS is the most commonly mutated oncogene in human cancers with limited therapeutic options, thus there is a critical need to identify novel targets and inhibiting agents. The 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein GRP78, which is upregulated in KRAS cancers, is an essential chaperone and the master regulator of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Following up on our recent discoveries that GRP78 haploinsufficiency suppresses both KRASG12D-driven pancreatic and lung tumorigenesis, we seek to determine the underlying mechanisms. Here, we report that knockdown of GRP78 via siRNA reduced oncogenic KRAS protein level in human lung, colon, and pancreatic cancer cells bearing various KRAS mutations. This effect was at the post-transcriptional level and is independent of proteasomal degradation or autophagy. Moreover, targeting GRP78 via small molecule inhibitors such as HA15 and YUM70 with anti-cancer activities while sparing normal cells significantly suppressed oncogenic KRAS expression in vitro and in vivo, associating with onset of apoptosis and loss of viability in cancer cells bearing various KRAS mutations. Collectively, our studies reveal that GRP78 is a previously unidentified regulator of oncogenic KRAS expression, and, as such, augments the other anti-cancer activities of GRP78 small molecule inhibitors to potentially achieve general, long-term suppression of mutant KRAS-driven tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dat P Ha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA; USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center
| | - Bo Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA; USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center
| | - Han Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA; USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center
| | - Daisy Flores Rangel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA; USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center
| | - Richard Van Krieken
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA; USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center
| | - Ze Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA; USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center
| | - Soma Samanta
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Nouri Neamati
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Amy S Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA; USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center.
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29
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Structural insight into the bulge-containing KRAS oncogene promoter G-quadruplex bound to berberine and coptisine. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6016. [PMID: 36224201 PMCID: PMC9556435 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33761-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/08/2022] Open
Abstract
KRAS is one of the most highly mutated oncoproteins, which is overexpressed in various human cancers and implicated in poor survival. The G-quadruplex formed in KRAS oncogene promoter (KRAS-G4) is a transcriptional modulator and amenable to small molecule targeting. However, no available KRAS-G4-ligand complex structure has yet been determined, which seriously hinders the structure-based rational design of KRAS-G4 targeting drugs. In this study, we report the NMR solution structures of a bulge-containing KRAS-G4 bound to berberine and coptisine, respectively. The determined complex structure shows a 2:1 binding stoichiometry with each compound recruiting the adjacent flacking adenine residue to form a "quasi-triad plane" that stacks over the two external G-tetrads. The binding involves both π-stacking and electrostatic interactions. Moreover, berberine and coptisine significantly lowered the KRAS mRNA levels in cancer cells. Our study thus provides molecular details of ligand interactions with KRAS-G4 and is beneficial for the design of specific KRAS-G4-interactive drugs.
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30
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Chira S, Nutu A, Isacescu E, Bica C, Pop L, Ciocan C, Berindan-Neagoe I. Genome Editing Approaches with CRISPR/Cas9 for Cancer Treatment: Critical Appraisal of Preclinical and Clinical Utility, Challenges, and Future Research. Cells 2022; 11:cells11182781. [PMID: 36139356 PMCID: PMC9496708 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing burden on human malignant diseases became a major concern for healthcare practitioners, that must deal with tumor relapse and the inability to efficiently treat metastasis, in addition to side effects. Throughout the decades, many therapeutic strategies have been employed to improve the clinical outcomes of cancer patients and great efforts have been made to develop more efficient and targeted medicines. The malignant cell is characterized by genetic and epigenetic modifications, therefore targeting those specific drivers of carcinogenesis is highly desirable. Among the genome editing technologies, CRISPR/Cas9 stood as a promising candidate for cancer treatment alternatives, due to its low complexity design. First described as a defense mechanism of bacteria against invading foreign DNA, later it was shown that CRISPR components can be engineered to target specific DNA sequences in a test tube, a discovery that was awarded later with the Nobel Prize in chemistry for its rapid expansion as a reliable genome editing tool in many fields of research, including medicine. The present paper aims of describing CRISPR/Cas9 potential targets for malignant disorders, and the approaches used for achieving this goal. Aside from preclinical studies, we also present the clinical trials that use CRISPR-based technology for therapeutic purposes of cancer. Finally, a summary of the presented studies adds a more focused view of the therapeutic value CRISPR/Cas9 holds and the associated shortcomings.
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31
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Indoloquinoline-Mediated Targeted Downregulation of KRAS through Selective Stabilization of the Mid-Promoter G-Quadruplex Structure. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13081440. [PMID: 36011352 PMCID: PMC9408018 DOI: 10.3390/genes13081440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
KRAS is a well-validated anti-cancer therapeutic target, whose transcriptional downregulation has been demonstrated to be lethal to tumor cells with aberrant KRAS signaling. G-quadruplexes (G4s) are non-canonical nucleic acid structures that mediate central dogmatic events, such as DNA repair, telomere elongation, transcription and splicing events. G4s are attractive drug targets, as they are more globular than B-DNA, enabling more selective gene interactions. Moreover, their genomic prevalence is increased in oncogenic promoters, their formation is increased in human cancers, and they can be modulated with small molecules or targeted nucleic acids. The putative formation of multiple G4s has been described in the literature, but compounds with selectivity among these structures have not yet been able to distinguish between the biological contribution of the predominant structures. Using cell free screening techniques, synthesis of novel indoloquinoline compounds and cellular models of KRAS-dependent cancer cells, we describe compounds that choose between KRAS promoter G4near and G4mid, correlate compound cytotoxic activity with KRAS regulation, and highlight G4mid as the lead molecular non-canonical structure for further targeting efforts.
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32
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Avery TY, Köhler N, Zeiser R, Brummer T, Ruess DA. Onco-immunomodulatory properties of pharmacological interference with RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway hyperactivation. Front Oncol 2022; 12:931774. [PMID: 35965494 PMCID: PMC9363660 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.931774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperactivation of the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK cascade - a mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway – has a well-known association with oncogenesis of leading tumor entities, including non-small cell lung cancer, colorectal carcinoma, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, and malignant melanoma. Increasing evidence shows that genetic alterations leading to RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway hyperactivation mediate contact- and soluble-dependent crosstalk between tumor, tumor microenvironment (TME) and the immune system resulting in immune escape mechanisms and establishment of a tumor-sustaining environment. Consequently, pharmacological interruption of this pathway not only leads to tumor-cell intrinsic disruptive effects but also modification of the TME and anti-tumor immunomodulation. At the same time, the importance of ERK signaling in immune cell physiology and potentiation of anti-tumor immune responses through ERK signaling inhibition within immune cell subsets has received growing appreciation. Specifically, a strong case was made for targeted MEK inhibition due to promising associated immune cell intrinsic modulatory effects. However, the successful transition of therapeutic agents interrupting RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK hyperactivation is still being hampered by significant limitations regarding durable efficacy, therapy resistance and toxicity. We here collate and summarize the multifaceted role of RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling in physiology and oncoimmunology and outline the rationale and concepts for exploitation of immunomodulatory properties of RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK inhibition while accentuating the role of MEK inhibition in combinatorial and intermittent anticancer therapy. Furthermore, we point out the extensive scientific efforts dedicated to overcoming the challenges encountered during the clinical transition of various therapeutic agents in the search for the most effective and safe patient- and tumor-tailored treatment approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Yul Avery
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Center of Surgery, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- *Correspondence: Thomas Yul Avery, ; Dietrich Alexander Ruess,
| | - Natalie Köhler
- Department of Medicine I - Medical Center, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- CIBSS - Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Robert Zeiser
- Department of Medicine I - Medical Center, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium Deutsches Konsortium Translationale Krebsforschung (DKTK), partner site Freiburg, German Cancer Research Center Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tilman Brummer
- German Cancer Consortium Deutsches Konsortium Translationale Krebsforschung (DKTK), partner site Freiburg, German Cancer Research Center Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (IMMZ), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Freiburg (CCCF), Faculty of Medicine, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dietrich Alexander Ruess
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Center of Surgery, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium Deutsches Konsortium Translationale Krebsforschung (DKTK), partner site Freiburg, German Cancer Research Center Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- *Correspondence: Thomas Yul Avery, ; Dietrich Alexander Ruess,
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Ladak RJ, He AJ, Huang YH, Ding Y. The Current Landscape of mRNA Vaccines Against Viruses and Cancer-A Mini Review. Front Immunol 2022; 13:885371. [PMID: 35603213 PMCID: PMC9120423 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.885371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Both infectious viral diseases and cancer have historically been some of the most common causes of death worldwide. The COVID-19 pandemic is a decidedly relevant example of the former. Despite progress having been made over past decades, new and improved techniques are still needed to address the limitations faced by current treatment standards, with mRNA-based therapy emerging as a promising solution. Highly flexible, scalable and cost-effective, mRNA therapy is proving to be a compelling vaccine platform against viruses. Likewise, mRNA vaccines show similar promise against cancer as a platform capable of encoding multiple antigens for a diverse array of cancers, including those that are patient specific as a novel form of personalized medicine. In this review, the molecular mechanisms, biotechnological aspects, and clinical developments of mRNA vaccines against viral infections and cancer are discussed to provide an informative update on the current state of mRNA therapy research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reese Jalal Ladak
- Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Alexander J. He
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Yu-Hsun Huang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Yu Ding
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Daily Practice Assessment of KRAS Status in NSCLC Patients: A New Challenge for the Thoracic Pathologist Is Right around the Corner. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14071628. [PMID: 35406400 PMCID: PMC8996900 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14071628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary RAS mutation is the most frequent oncogenic alteration in human cancers and KRAS is the most frequently mutated, notably in non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLC). Various attempts to inhibit KRAS in the past were unsuccessful in these latter tumors. However, recently, several small molecules (AMG510, MRTX849, JNJ-74699157, and LY3499446) have been developed to specifically target KRAS G12C-mutated tumors, which seems promising for patient treatment and should soon be administered in daily practice for non-squamous (NS)-NSCLC. In this context, it will be mandatory to systematically assess the KRAS status in routine clinical practice, at least in advanced NS-NSCLC, leading to new challenges for thoracic oncologists. Abstract KRAS mutations are among the most frequent genomic alterations identified in non-squamous non-small cell lung carcinomas (NS-NSCLC), notably in lung adenocarcinomas. In most cases, these mutations are mutually exclusive, with different genomic alterations currently known to be sensitive to therapies targeting EGFR, ALK, BRAF, ROS1, and NTRK. Recently, several promising clinical trials targeting KRAS mutations, particularly for KRAS G12C-mutated NSCLC, have established new hope for better treatment of patients. In parallel, other studies have shown that NSCLC harboring co-mutations in KRAS and STK11 or KEAP1 have demonstrated primary resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Thus, the assessment of the KRAS status in advanced-stage NS-NSCLC has become essential to setting up an optimal therapeutic strategy in these patients. This stimulated the development of new algorithms for the management of NSCLC samples in pathology laboratories and conditioned reorganization of optimal health care of lung cancer patients by the thoracic pathologists. This review addresses the recent data concerning the detection of KRAS mutations in NSCLC and focuses on the new challenges facing pathologists in daily practice for KRAS status assessment.
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Juan A, del Mar Noblejas-López M, Arenas-Moreira M, Alonso-Moreno C, Ocaña A. Options to Improve the Action of PROTACs in Cancer: Development of Controlled Delivery Nanoparticles. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 9:805336. [PMID: 35186955 PMCID: PMC8851355 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.805336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Classical targeting in cancer focuses on the development of chemical structures able to bind to protein pockets with enzymatic activity. Some of these molecules are designed to bind the ATP side of the kinase domain avoiding protein activation and the subsequent oncogenic activity. A further improvement of these agents relies on the generation of non-allosteric inhibitors that once bound are able to limit the kinase function by producing a conformational change at the protein and, therefore, augmenting the antitumoural potency. Unfortunately, not all oncogenic proteins have enzymatic activity and cannot be chemically targeted with these types of molecular entities. Very recently, exploiting the protein degradation pathway through the ubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation of key target proteins has gained momentum. With this approach, non-enzymatic proteins such as Transcription Factors can be degraded. In this regard, we provide an overview of current applications of the PROteolysis TArgeting Chimeras (PROTACs) compounds for the treatment of solid tumours and ways to overcome their limitations for clinical development. Among the different constraints for their development, improvements in bioavailability and safety, due to an optimized delivery, seem to be relevant. In this context, it is anticipated that those targeting pan-essential genes will have a narrow therapeutic index. In this article, we review the advantages and disadvantages of the potential use of drug delivery systems to improve the activity and safety of PROTACs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Juan
- Unidad NanoCRIB, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Albacete, Spain
| | - María del Mar Noblejas-López
- Oncología Traslacional, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Albacete, Spain
- Unidad de Investigación del Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Oncología Traslacional, Albacete, Spain
| | | | - Carlos Alonso-Moreno
- Unidad NanoCRIB, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Albacete, Spain
- Facultad de Farmacia de Albacete Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Alberto Ocaña
- Unidad de Investigación del Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Oncología Traslacional, Albacete, Spain
- Experimental Therapeutics Unit, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, IdISSC and CIBERONC, Madrid, Spain
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Hyun S, Shin D. Small-Molecule Inhibitors and Degraders Targeting KRAS-Driven Cancers. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:12142. [PMID: 34830024 PMCID: PMC8621880 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance continues to be a major problem associated with cancer treatment. One of the primary causes of anticancer drug resistance is the frequently mutated RAS gene. In particular, considerable efforts have been made to treat KRAS-induced cancers by directly and indirectly controlling the activity of KRAS. However, the RAS protein is still one of the most prominent targets for drugs in cancer treatment. Recently, novel targeted protein degradation (TPD) strategies, such as proteolysis-targeting chimeras, have been developed to render "undruggable" targets druggable and overcome drug resistance and mutation problems. In this study, we discuss small-molecule inhibitors, TPD-based small-molecule chemicals for targeting RAS pathway proteins, and their potential applications for treating KRAS-mutant cancers. Novel TPD strategies are expected to serve as promising therapeutic methods for treating tumor patients with KRAS mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soonsil Hyun
- College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, 194-21 Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si 28160, Korea;
| | - Dongyun Shin
- Gachon Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoe-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21936, Korea
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