Microtubule nucleation at non-spindle pole body microtubule-organizing centers requires fission yeast centrosomin-related protein mod20p

Parallel genetic screens identify nuclear envelope homeostasis as a key determinant of telomere entanglement resolution in fission yeast

In fission yeast lacking the telomere binding protein, Taz1, replication forks stall at telomeres, triggering deleterious downstream events. Strand invasion from one taz1Δ telomeric stalled fork to another on a separate (nonsister) chromosome leads to telomere entanglements, which are resolved in mitosis at 32°C; however, entanglement resolution fails at ≤20°C, leading to cold-specific lethality. Previously, we found that loss of the mitotic function of Rif1, a conserved DNA replication and repair factor, suppresses cold sensitivity by promoting resolution of entanglements without affecting entanglement formation. To understand the underlying pathways of mitotic entanglement resolution, we performed a series of genome-wide synthetic genetic array screens to generate a comprehensive list of genetic interactors of taz1Δ and rif1Δ. We modified a previously described screening method to ensure that the queried cells were kept in log phase growth. In addition to recapitulating previously identified genetic interactions, we find that loss of genes encoding components of the nuclear pore complex (NPC) promotes telomere disentanglement and suppresses taz1Δ cold sensitivity. We attribute this to more rapid anaphase midregion nuclear envelope (NE) breakdown in the absence of these NPC components. Loss of genes involved in lipid metabolism reverses the ability of rif1+ deletion to suppress taz1Δ cold sensitivity, again pinpointing NE modulation. A rif1+ separation-of-function mutant that specifically loses Rif1's mitotic functions yields similar genetic interactions. Genes promoting membrane fluidity were enriched in a parallel taz1+ synthetic lethal screen at permissive temperature, cementing the idea that the cold specificity of taz1Δ lethality stems from altered NE homeostasis.

Fate of telomere entanglements is dictated by the timing of anaphase midregion nuclear envelope breakdown

Persisting replication intermediates can confer mitotic catastrophe. Loss of the fission yeast telomere protein Taz1 (ortholog of mammalian TRF1/TRF2) causes telomeric replication fork (RF) stalling and consequently, telomere entanglements that stretch between segregating mitotic chromosomes. At ≤20 °C, these entanglements fail to resolve, resulting in lethality. Rif1, a conserved DNA replication/repair protein, hinders the resolution of telomere entanglements without affecting their formation. At mitosis, local nuclear envelope (NE) breakdown occurs in the cell's midregion. Here we demonstrate that entanglement resolution occurs in the cytoplasm following this NE breakdown. However, in response to taz1Δ telomeric entanglements, Rif1 delays midregion NE breakdown at ≤20 °C, in turn disfavoring entanglement resolution. Moreover, Rif1 overexpression in an otherwise wild-type setting causes cold-specific NE defects and lethality, which are rescued by membrane fluidization. Hence, NE properties confer the cold-specificity of taz1Δ lethality, which stems from postponement of NE breakdown. We propose that such postponement promotes clearance of simple stalled RFs, but resolution of complex entanglements (involving strand invasion between nonsister telomeres) requires rapid exposure to the cytoplasm.

Tools for live-cell imaging of cytoskeletal and nuclear behavior in the unconventional yeast, Aureobasidium pullulans

Aureobasidium pullulans is a ubiquitous fungus with a wide variety of morphologies and growth modes including "typical" single-budding yeast, and interestingly, larger multinucleate yeast than can make multiple buds in a single cell cycle. The study of A. pullulans promises to uncover novel cell biology, but currently tools are lacking to achieve this goal. Here, we describe initial components of a cell biology toolkit for A. pullulans, which is used to express and image fluorescent probes for nuclei as well as components of the cytoskeleton. These tools allowed live-cell imaging of the multinucleate and multibudding cycles, revealing highly synchronous mitoses in multinucleate yeast that occur in a semiopen manner with an intact but permeable nuclear envelope. These findings open the door to using this ubiquitous polyextremotolerant fungus as a model for evolutionary cell biology.

Multifaceted modes of γ-tubulin complex recruitment and microtubule nucleation at mitotic centrosomes

Microtubule nucleation is mediated by γ-tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRCs). In most eukaryotes, a GCP4/5/4/6 "core" complex promotes γ-tubulin small complex (γ-TuSC) association to generate cytosolic γ-TuRCs. Unlike γ-TuSCs, however, this core complex is non-essential in various species and absent from budding yeasts. In Drosophila, Spindle defective-2 (Spd-2) and Centrosomin (Cnn) redundantly recruit γ-tubulin complexes to mitotic centrosomes. Here, we show that Spd-2 recruits γ-TuRCs formed via the GCP4/5/4/6 core, but Cnn can recruit γ-TuSCs directly via its well-conserved CM1 domain, similar to its homologs in budding yeast. When centrosomes fail to recruit γ-tubulin complexes, they still nucleate microtubules via the TOG domain protein Mini-spindles (Msps), but these microtubules have different dynamic properties. Our data, therefore, help explain the dispensability of the GCP4/5/4/6 core and highlight the robustness of centrosomes as microtubule organizing centers. They also suggest that the dynamic properties of microtubules are influenced by how they are nucleated.

Autoinhibitory mechanism controls binding of centrosomin motif 1 to γ-tubulin ring complex

The γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) is the principal nucleator of cellular microtubules, and the microtubule-nucleating activity of the complex is stimulated by binding to the γTuRC-mediated nucleation activator (γTuNA) motif. The γTuNA is part of the centrosomin motif 1 (CM1), which is widely found in γTuRC stimulators, including CDK5RAP2. Here, we show that a conserved segment within CM1 binds to the γTuNA and blocks its association with γTuRCs; therefore, we refer to this segment as the γTuNA inhibitor (γTuNA-In). Mutational disruption of the interaction between the γTuNA and the γTuNA-In results in a loss of autoinhibition, which consequently augments microtubule nucleation on centrosomes and the Golgi complex, the two major microtubule-organizing centers. This also causes centrosome repositioning, leads to defects in Golgi assembly and organization, and affects cell polarization. Remarkably, phosphorylation of the γTuNA-In, probably by Nek2, counteracts the autoinhibition by disrupting the γTuNA‒γTuNA-In interaction. Together, our data reveal an on-site mechanism for controlling γTuNA function.

Microtubule competition and cell growth recenter the nucleus after anaphase in fission yeast

Cells actively position their nuclei based on their activity. In fission yeast, microtubule-dependent nuclear centering is critical for symmetrical cell division. After spindle disassembly at the end of anaphase, the nucleus recenters over an ∼90-min period, approximately half of the duration of the cell cycle. Live-cell and simulation experiments support the cooperation of two distinct microtubule competition mechanisms in the slow recentering of the nucleus. First, a push-push mechanism acts from spindle disassembly to septation and involves the opposing actions of the mitotic spindle pole body microtubules that push the nucleus away from the ends of the cell, while a postanaphase array of microtubules baskets the nucleus and limits its migration toward the division plane. Second, a slow-and-grow mechanism slowly centers the nucleus in the newborn cell by a combination of microtubule competition and asymmetric cell growth. Our work underlines how intrinsic properties of microtubules differently impact nuclear positioning according to microtubule network organization and cell size.

γ-Tubulin in microtubule nucleation and beyond

Microtubules composed of αβ-tubulin dimers are dynamic cytoskeletal polymers that play key roles in essential cellular processes such as cell division, organelle positioning, intracellular transport, and cell migration. γ-Tubulin is a highly conserved member of the tubulin family that is required for microtubule nucleation. γ-Tubulin, together with its associated proteins, forms the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC), that templates microtubules. Here we review recent advances in the structure of γ-TuRC, its activation, and centrosomal recruitment. This provides new mechanistic insights into the molecular mechanism of microtubule nucleation. Accumulating data suggest that γ-tubulin also has other, less well understood functions. We discuss emerging evidence that γ-tubulin can form oligomers and filaments, has specific nuclear functions, and might be involved in centrosomal cross-talk between microtubules and microfilaments.

Centrosome function is critical during terminal erythroid differentiation

Red blood cells are produced by terminal erythroid differentiation, which involves the dramatic morphological transformation of erythroblasts into enucleated reticulocytes. Microtubules are important for enucleation, but it is not known if the centrosome, a key microtubule-organizing center, is required as well. Mice lacking the conserved centrosome component, CDK5RAP2, are likely to have defective erythroid differentiation because they develop macrocytic anemia. Here, we show that fetal liver-derived, CDK5RAP2-deficient erythroid progenitors generate fewer and larger reticulocytes, hence recapitulating features of macrocytic anemia. In erythroblasts, but not in embryonic fibroblasts, loss of CDK5RAP2 or pharmacological depletion of centrosomes leads to highly aberrant spindle morphologies. Consistent with such cells exiting mitosis without chromosome segregation, tetraploidy is frequent in late-stage erythroblasts, thereby giving rise to fewer but larger reticulocytes than normal. Our results define a critical role for CDK5RAP2 and centrosomes in spindle formation specifically during blood production. We propose that disruption of centrosome and spindle function could contribute to the emergence of macrocytic anemias, for instance, due to nutritional deficiency or exposure to chemotherapy.

The role of Aspergillus nidulans polo-like kinase PlkA in microtubule-organizing center control

Centrosomes are important microtubule-organizing centers (MTOC) in animal cells. In addition, non-centrosomal MTOCs (ncMTOCs) have been described in many cell types. The functional analogs of centrosomes in fungi are the spindle pole bodies (SPBs). In Aspergillus nidulans, additional MTOCs have been discovered at septa (sMTOC). Although the core components are conserved in both MTOCs, their composition and organization are different and dynamic. Here, we show that the polo-like kinase PlkA binds the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC) receptor protein ApsB and contributes to targeting ApsB to both MTOCs. PlkA coordinates the activities of the SPB outer plaque and the sMTOC. PlkA kinase activity was required for astral MT formation involving ApsB recruitment. PlkA also interacted with the γ-TuRC inner plaque receptor protein PcpA. Mitosis was delayed without PlkA, and the PlkA protein was required for proper mitotic spindle morphology, although this function was independent of its catalytic activity. Our results suggest that the polo-like kinase is a regulator of MTOC activities and acts as a scaffolding unit through interaction with γ-TuRC receptors.

Molecular insight into how γ-TuRC makes microtubules

As one of four filament types, microtubules are a core component of the cytoskeleton and are essential for cell function. Yet how microtubules are nucleated from their building blocks, the αβ-tubulin heterodimer, has remained a fundamental open question since the discovery of tubulin 50 years ago. Recent structural studies have shed light on how γ-tubulin and the γ-tubulin complex proteins (GCPs) GCP2 to GCP6 form the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC). In parallel, functional and single-molecule studies have informed on how the γ-TuRC nucleates microtubules in real time, how this process is regulated in the cell and how it compares to other modes of nucleation. Another recent surprise has been the identification of a second essential nucleation factor, which turns out to be the well-characterized microtubule polymerase XMAP215 (also known as CKAP5, a homolog of chTOG, Stu2 and Alp14). This discovery helps to explain why the observed nucleation activity of the γ-TuRC in vitro is relatively low. Taken together, research in recent years has afforded important insight into how microtubules are made in the cell and provides a basis for an exciting era in the cytoskeleton field.

Autoinhibition of Cnn binding to γ-TuRCs prevents ectopic microtubule nucleation and cell division defects

γ-Tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRCs) nucleate microtubules. They are recruited to centrosomes in dividing cells via binding to N-terminal CM1 domains within γ-TuRC–tethering proteins, including Drosophila Centrosomin (Cnn). Binding promotes microtubule nucleation and is restricted to centrosomes in dividing cells, but the mechanism regulating binding remains unknown. Here, we identify an extreme N-terminal CM1 autoinhibition (CAI) domain found specifically within the centrosomal isoform of Cnn (Cnn-C) that inhibits γ-TuRC binding. Robust binding occurs after removal of the CAI domain or with the addition of phosphomimetic mutations, suggesting that phosphorylation helps relieve inhibition. We show that regulation of Cnn binding to γ-TuRCs is isoform specific and that misregulation of binding can result in ectopic cytosolic microtubules and major defects during cell division. We also find that human CDK5RAP2 is autoinhibited from binding γ-TuRCs, suggesting conservation across species. Overall, our results shed light on how and why CM1 domain binding to γ-TuRCs is regulated.

Microtubule-independent movement of the fission yeast nucleus

Movement of the cell nucleus typically involves the cytoskeleton and either polymerization-based pushing forces or motor-based pulling forces. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, nuclear movement and positioning are thought to depend on microtubule polymerization-based pushing forces. Here, we describe a novel, microtubule-independent, form of nuclear movement in fission yeast. Microtubule-independent nuclear movement is directed towards growing cell tips, and it is strongest when the nucleus is close to a growing cell tip, and weakest when the nucleus is far from that tip. Microtubule-independent nuclear movement requires actin cables but does not depend on actin polymerization-based pushing or myosin V-based pulling forces. The vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)-associated proteins (VAPs) Scs2 and Scs22, which are critical for endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane contact sites in fission yeast, are also required for microtubule-independent nuclear movement. We also find that in cells in which microtubule-based pushing forces are present, disruption of actin cables leads to increased fluctuations in interphase nuclear positioning and subsequent altered septation. Our results suggest two non-exclusive mechanisms for microtubule-independent nuclear movement, which may help illuminate aspects of nuclear positioning in other cells.

A novel mitosis-specific Cep215 domain interacts with Cep192 and phosphorylated Aurora A for organization of spindle poles

The centrosome, which consists of centrioles and pericentriolar material (PCM), becomes mature and assembles mitotic spindles by increasing the number of microtubules (MTs) emanating from the PCM. Among the molecules involved in centrosome maturation, Cep192 and Aurora A (AurA, also known as AURKA) are primarily responsible for recruitment of γ-tubulin and MT nucleators, whereas pericentrin (PCNT) is required for PCM organization. However, the role of Cep215 (also known as CDK5RAP2) in centrosome maturation remains elusive. Cep215 possesses binding domains for γ-tubulin, PCNT and MT motors that transport acentrosomal MTs towards the centrosome. We identify a mitosis-specific centrosome-targeting domain of Cep215 (215N) that interacts with Cep192 and phosphorylated AurA (pAurA). Cep192 is essential for targeting 215N to centrosomes, and centrosomal localization of 215N and pAurA is mutually dependent. Cep215 has a relatively minor role in γ-tubulin recruitment to the mitotic centrosome. However, it has been shown previously that this protein is important for connecting mitotic centrosomes to spindle poles. Based on the results of rescue experiments using versions of Cep215 with different domain deletions, we conclude that Cep215 plays a role in maintaining the structural integrity of the spindle pole by providing a platform for the molecules involved in centrosome maturation.

Microtubule nucleation promoters Mto1 and Mto2 regulate cytokinesis in fission yeast

Microtubules of the mitotic spindle direct cytokinesis in metazoans but this has not been documented in fungi. We report evidence that microtubule nucleators at the spindle pole body help coordinate cytokinetic furrow formation in fission yeast. The temperature-sensitive cps1-191 strain (Liu et al., 1999) with a D277N substitution in β-glucan synthase 1 (Cps1/Bgs1) was reported to arrest with an unconstricted contractile ring. We discovered that contractile rings in cps1-191 cells constrict slowly and that an mto2S338N mutation is required with the bgs1D277Nmutation to reproduce the cps1-191 phenotype. Complexes of Mto2 and Mto1 with γ-tubulin regulate microtubule assembly. Deletion of Mto1 along with the bgs1D277N mutation also gives the cps1-191 phenotype, which is not observed in mto2S338N or mto1Δ cells expressing bgs1+. Both mto2S338N and mto1Δ cells nucleate fewer astral microtubules than normal and have higher levels of Rho1-GTP at the division site than wild-type cells. We report multiple conditions that sensitize mto1Δ and mto2S338N cells to furrow ingression phenotypes.

Alp7-Mto1 and Alp14 synergize to promote interphase microtubule regrowth from the nuclear envelope

Microtubules grow not only from the centrosome but also from various noncentrosomal microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs), including the nuclear envelope (NE) and pre-existing microtubules. The evolutionarily conserved proteins Mto1/CDK5RAP2 and Alp14/TOG/XMAP215 have been shown to be involved in promoting microtubule nucleation. However, it has remained elusive as to how the microtubule nucleation promoting factors are specified to various noncentrosomal MTOCs, particularly the NE, and how these proteins coordinate to organize microtubule assembly. Here, we demonstrate that in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, efficient interphase microtubule growth from the NE requires Alp7/TACC, Alp14/TOG/XMAP215, and Mto1/CDK5RAP2. The absence of Alp7, Alp14, or Mto1 compromises microtubule regrowth on the NE in cells undergoing microtubule repolymerization. We further demonstrate that Alp7 and Mto1 interdependently localize to the NE in cells without microtubules and that Alp14 localizes to the NE in an Alp7 and Mto1-dependent manner. Tethering Mto1 to the NE in cells lacking Alp7 partially restores microtubule number and the efficiency of microtubule generation from the NE. Hence, our study delineates that Alp7, Alp14, and Mto1 work in concert to regulate interphase microtubule regrowth on the NE.

The γ-tubulin complex protein GCP6 is crucial for spindle morphogenesis but not essential for microtubule reorganization in Arabidopsis

γ-Tubulin typically forms a ring-shaped complex with 5 related γ-tubulin complex proteins (GCP2 to GCP6), and this γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) serves as a template for microtubule (MT) nucleation in plants and animals. While the γTuRC takes part in MT nucleation in most eukaryotes, in fungi such events take place robustly with just the γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC) assembled by γ-tubulin plus GCP2 and GCP3. To explore whether the γTuRC is the sole functional γ-tubulin complex in plants, we generated 2 mutants of the GCP6 gene encoding the largest subunit of the γTuRC in Arabidopsis thaliana Both mutants showed similar phenotypes of dwarfed vegetative growth and reduced fertility. The gcp6 mutant assembled the γTuSC, while the wild-type cells had GCP6 join other GCPs to produce the γTuRC. Although the gcp6 cells had greatly diminished γ-tubulin localization on spindle MTs, the protein was still detected there. The gcp6 cells formed spindles that lacked MT convergence and discernable poles; however, they managed to cope with the challenge of MT disorganization and were able to complete mitosis and cytokinesis. Our results reveal that the γTuRC is not the only functional form of the γ-tubulin complex for MT nucleation in plant cells, and that γ-tubulin-dependent, but γTuRC-independent, mechanisms meet the basal need of MT nucleation. Moreover, we show that the γTuRC function is more critical for the assembly of spindle MT array than for the phragmoplast. Thus, our findings provide insight into acentrosomal MT nucleation and organization.

Nuclear Mechanics in the Fission Yeast

In eukaryotic cells, the organization of the genome within the nucleus requires the nuclear envelope (NE) and its associated proteins. The nucleus is subjected to mechanical forces produced by the cytoskeleton. The physical properties of the NE and the linkage of chromatin in compacted conformation at sites of cytoskeleton contacts seem to be key for withstanding nuclear mechanical stress. Mechanical perturbations of the nucleus normally occur during nuclear positioning and migration. In addition, cell contraction or expansion occurring for instance during cell migration or upon changes in osmotic conditions also result innuclear mechanical stress. Recent studies in Schizosaccharomyces pombe (fission yeast) have revealed unexpected functions of cytoplasmic microtubules in nuclear architecture and chromosome behavior, and have pointed to NE-chromatin tethers as protective elements during nuclear mechanics. Here, we review and discuss how fission yeast cells can be used to understand principles underlying the dynamic interplay between genome organization and function and the effect of forces applied to the nucleus by the microtubule cytoskeleton.

Effects of the microtubule nucleator Mto1 on chromosomal movement, DNA repair, and sister chromatid cohesion in fission yeast

Although the function of microtubules (MTs) in chromosomal segregation during mitosis is well characterized, much less is known about the role of MTs in chromosomal functions during interphase. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, dynamic cytoplasmic MT bundles move chromosomes in an oscillatory manner during interphase via linkages through the nuclear envelope (NE) at the spindle pole body (SPB) and other sites. Mto1 is a cytoplasmic factor that mediates the nucleation and attachment of cytoplasmic MTs to the nucleus. Here, we test the function of these cytoplasmic MTs and Mto1 on DNA repair and recombination during interphase. We find that mto1Δ cells exhibit defects in DNA repair and homologous recombination (HR) and abnormal DNA repair factory dynamics. In these cells, sister chromatids are not properly paired, and binding of Rad21 cohesin subunit along chromosomal arms is reduced. Our findings suggest a model in which cytoplasmic MTs and Mto1 facilitate efficient DNA repair and HR by promoting dynamic chromosomal organization and cohesion in the nucleus.

Reconstitution of Microtubule Nucleation In Vitro Reveals Novel Roles for Mzt1

Microtubule (MT) nucleation depends on the γ-tubulin complex (γ-TuC), in which multiple copies of the heterotetrameric γ-tubulin small complex (γ-TuSC) associate to form a ring-like structure (in metazoans, γ-tubulin ring complex; γ-TuRC) [1-7]. Additional conserved regulators of the γ-TuC include the small protein Mzt1 (MOZART1 in human; GIP1/1B and GIP2/1A in plants) [8-13] and proteins containing a Centrosomin Motif 1 (CM1) domain [10, 14-19]. Many insights into γ-TuC regulators have come from in vivo analysis in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The S. pombe CM1 protein Mto1 recruits the γ-TuC to microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) [14, 20-22], and analysis of Mto1[bonsai], a truncated version of Mto1 that cannot localize to MTOCs, has shown that Mto1 also has a role in γ-TuC activation [23]. S. pombe Mzt1 interacts with γ-TuSC and is essential for γ-TuC function and localization to MTOCs [11, 12]. However, the mechanisms by which Mzt1 functions remain unclear. Here we describe reconstitution of MT nucleation using purified recombinant Mto1[bonsai], the Mto1 partner protein Mto2, γ-TuSC, and Mzt1. Multiple copies of the six proteins involved coassemble to form a 34-40S ring-like "MGM" holocomplex that is a potent MT nucleator in vitro. Using purified MGM and subcomplexes, we investigate the role of Mzt1 in MT nucleation. Our results suggest that Mzt1 is critical to stabilize Alp6, the S. pombe homolog of human γ-TuSC protein GCP3, in an "interaction-competent" form within the γ-TuSC. This is essential for MGM to become a functional nucleator.

Assembly and regulation of γ-tubulin complexes

Microtubules are major constituents of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells. They are essential for chromosome segregation during cell division, for directional intracellular transport and for building specialized cellular structures such as cilia or flagella. Their assembly has to be controlled spatially and temporally. For this, the cell uses multiprotein complexes containing γ-tubulin. γ-Tubulin has been found in two different types of complexes, γ-tubulin small complexes and γ-tubulin ring complexes. Binding to adaptors and activator proteins transforms these complexes into structural templates that drive the nucleation of new microtubules in a highly controlled manner. This review discusses recent advances on the mechanisms of assembly, recruitment and activation of γ-tubulin complexes at microtubule-organizing centres.

The J-domain cochaperone Rsp1 interacts with Mto1 to organize noncentrosomal microtubule assembly

Microtubule biogenesis initiates at various intracellular sites, including the centrosome, the Golgi apparatus, the nuclear envelope, and preexisting microtubules. Similarly, in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, interphase microtubules are nucleated at the spindle pole body (SPB), the nuclear envelope, and preexisting microtubules, depending on Mto1 activity. Despite the essential role of Mto1 in promoting microtubule nucleation, how distribution of Mto1 in different sites is regulated has remained elusive. Here, we show that the J-domain cochaperone Rsp1 interacts with Mto1 and specifies the localization of Mto1 to non-SPB nucleation sites. The absence of Rsp1 abolishes the localization of Mto1 to non-SPB nucleation sites, with concomitant enrichment of Mto1 to the SPB and the nuclear envelope. In contrast, Rsp1 overexpression impairs the localization of Mto1 to all microtubule organization sites. These findings delineate a previously uncharacterized mechanism in which Rsp1-Mto1 interaction orchestrates non-SPB microtubule formation.

Microtubule nucleation by γ-tubulin complexes and beyond

In this short review, we give an overview of microtubule nucleation within cells. It is nearly 30 years since the discovery of γ-tubulin, a member of the tubulin superfamily essential for proper microtubule nucleation in all eukaryotes. γ-tubulin associates with other proteins to form multiprotein γ-tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRCs) that template and catalyse the otherwise kinetically unfavourable assembly of microtubule filaments. These filaments can be dynamic or stable and they perform diverse functions, such as chromosome separation during mitosis and intracellular transport in neurons. The field has come a long way in understanding γ-TuRC biology but several important and unanswered questions remain, and we are still far from understanding the regulation of microtubule nucleation in a multicellular context. Here, we review the current literature on γ-TuRC assembly, recruitment, and activation and discuss the potential importance of γ-TuRC heterogeneity, the role of non-γ-TuRC proteins in microtubule nucleation, and whether γ-TuRCs could serve as good drug targets for cancer therapy.

Role of nucleocytoplasmic transport in interphase microtubule organization in fission yeast

The proper organization of microtubules is essential for many cellular functions. Microtubule organization and reorganization are highly regulated during the cell cycle, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here we characterized unusual interphase microtubule organization in fission yeast nuclear export mutant crm1-124. The mutant cells have an intranuclear microtubule bundle during interphase that pushes the nuclear envelope to assume a protruding morphology. We showed that the formation of this protruding microtubule bundle requires the nuclear accumulation of two microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), Alp14/TOG and Mal3/EB1. Interestingly, the forced accumulation of Alp14 in the nucleus of wild type cells is sufficient to form the intranuclear microtubule bundle. Furthermore, the frequency of the intranuclear microtubule formation by Alp14 accumulated in the nucleus is prominently increased by a reduction in the nucleation activity of interphase cytoplasmic microtubules. We propose that properly regulated nucleocytoplasmic transport and maintained activity of cytoplasmic microtubule nucleation during interphase are important for the proper organization of interphase cytoplasmic microtubules.

Local and global Cdc42 guanine nucleotide exchange factors for fission yeast cell polarity are coordinated by microtubules and the Tea1-Tea4-Pom1 axis

The conserved Rho-family GTPase Cdc42 plays a central role in eukaryotic cell polarity. The rod-shaped fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe has two Cdc42 guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), Scd1 and Gef1, but little is known about how they are coordinated in polarized growth. Although the microtubule cytoskeleton is normally not required for polarity maintenance in fission yeast, we show here that when scd1 function is compromised, disruption of microtubules or the polarity landmark proteins Tea1, Tea4 or Pom1 leads to disruption of polarized growth. Instead, cells adopt an isotropic-like pattern of growth, which we term PORTLI growth. Surprisingly, PORTLI growth is caused by spatially inappropriate activity of Gef1. Although most Cdc42 GEFs are membrane associated, we find that Gef1 is a broadly distributed cytosolic protein rather than a membrane-associated protein at cell tips like Scd1. Microtubules and the Tea1–Tea4–Pom1 axis counteract inappropriate Gef1 activity by regulating the localization of the Cdc42 GTPase-activating protein Rga4. Our results suggest a new model of fission yeast cell polarity regulation, involving coordination of ‘local’ (Scd1) and ‘global’ (Gef1) Cdc42 GEFs via microtubules and microtubule-dependent polarity landmarks.

Highlighted Article: Cell polarity in fission yeast is regulated by two different Cdc42 guanine nucleotide exchange factors, coordinated by the microtubule-dependent landmark system.

Fungal Morphogenesis, from the Polarized Growth of Hyphae to Complex Reproduction and Infection Structures

Filamentous fungi constitute a large group of eukaryotic microorganisms that grow by forming simple tube-like hyphae that are capable of differentiating into more-complex morphological structures and distinct cell types. Hyphae form filamentous networks by extending at their tips while branching in subapical regions. Rapid tip elongation requires massive membrane insertion and extension of the rigid chitin-containing cell wall. This process is sustained by a continuous flow of secretory vesicles that depends on the coordinated action of the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons and the corresponding motors and associated proteins. Vesicles transport cell wall-synthesizing enzymes and accumulate in a special structure, the Spitzenkörper, before traveling further and fusing with the tip membrane. The place of vesicle fusion and growth direction are enabled and defined by the position of the Spitzenkörper, the so-called cell end markers, and other proteins involved in the exocytic process. Also important for tip extension is membrane recycling by endocytosis via early endosomes, which function as multipurpose transport vehicles for mRNA, septins, ribosomes, and peroxisomes. Cell integrity, hyphal branching, and morphogenesis are all processes that are largely dependent on vesicle and cytoskeleton dynamics. When hyphae differentiate structures for asexual or sexual reproduction or to mediate interspecies interactions, the hyphal basic cellular machinery may be reprogrammed through the synthesis of new proteins and/or the modification of protein activity. Although some transcriptional networks involved in such reprogramming of hyphae are well studied in several model filamentous fungi, clear connections between these networks and known determinants of hyphal morphogenesis are yet to be established.

Exportin Crm1 is repurposed as a docking protein to generate microtubule organizing centers at the nuclear pore

Non-centrosomal microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) are important for microtubule organization in many cell types. In fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the protein Mto1, together with partner protein Mto2 (Mto1/2 complex), recruits the γ-tubulin complex to multiple non-centrosomal MTOCs, including the nuclear envelope (NE). Here, we develop a comparative-interactome mass spectrometry approach to determine how Mto1 localizes to the NE. Surprisingly, we find that Mto1, a constitutively cytoplasmic protein, docks at nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), via interaction with exportin Crm1 and cytoplasmic FG-nucleoporin Nup146. Although Mto1 is not a nuclear export cargo, it binds Crm1 via a nuclear export signal-like sequence, and docking requires both Ran in the GTP-bound state and Nup146 FG repeats. In addition to determining the mechanism of MTOC formation at the NE, our results reveal a novel role for Crm1 and the nuclear export machinery in the stable docking of a cytoplasmic protein complex at NPCs.

The XMAP215 Ortholog Alp14 Promotes Microtubule Nucleation in Fission Yeast

The organization and number of microtubules (MTs) in a cell depend on the proper regulation of MT nucleation. Currently, the mechanism of nucleation is the most poorly understood aspect of MT dynamics. XMAP215/chTOG/Alp14/Stu2 proteins are MT polymerases that stimulate MT polymerization at MT plus ends by binding and releasing tubulin dimers. Although these proteins also localize to MT organizing centers and have nucleating activity in vitro, it is not yet clear whether these proteins participate in MT nucleation in vivo. Here, we demonstrate that in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the XMAP215 ortholog Alp14 is critical for efficient MT nucleation in vivo. In multiple assays, loss of Alp14 function led to reduced nucleation rate and numbers of interphase MT bundles. Conversely, activation of Alp14 led to increased nucleation frequency. Alp14 associated with Mto1 and γ-tubulin complex components, and artificially targeting Alp14 to the γ-tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRCs) stimulated nucleation. In imaging individual nucleation events, we found that Alp14 transiently associated with a γ-tubulin particle shortly before the appearance of a new MT. The transforming acidic coiled-coil (TACC) ortholog Alp7 mediated the localization of Alp14 at nucleation sites but not plus ends, and was required for efficient nucleation but not for MT polymerization. Our findings provide the strongest evidence to date that Alp14 serves as a critical MT nucleation factor in vivo. We suggest a model in which Alp14 associates with the γ-tubulin complex in an Alp7-dependent manner to facilitate the assembly or stabilization of the nascent MT.

CDK5RAP2 Is an Essential Scaffolding Protein of the Corona of the Dictyostelium Centrosome

Dictyostelium centrosomes consist of a nucleus-associated cylindrical, three-layered core structure surrounded by a corona consisting of microtubule-nucleation complexes embedded in a scaffold of large coiled-coil proteins. One of them is the conserved CDK5RAP2 protein. Here we focus on the role of Dictyostelium CDK5RAP2 for maintenance of centrosome integrity, its interaction partners and its dynamic behavior during interphase and mitosis. GFP-CDK5RAP2 is present at the centrosome during the entire cell cycle except from a short period during prophase, correlating with the normal dissociation of the corona at this stage. RNAi depletion of CDK5RAP2 results in complete disorganization of centrosomes and microtubules suggesting that CDK5RAP2 is required for organization of the corona and its association to the core structure. This is in line with the observation that overexpressed GFP-CDK5RAP2 elicited supernumerary cytosolic MTOCs. The phenotype of CDK5RAP2 depletion was very reminiscent of that observed upon depletion of CP148, another scaffolding protein of the corona. BioID interaction assays revealed an interaction of CDK5RAP2 not only with the corona markers CP148, γ-tubulin, and CP248, but also with the core components Cep192, CP75, and CP91. Furthermore, protein localization studies in both depletion strains revealed that CP148 and CDK5RAP2 cooperate in corona organization.

Coming into Focus: Mechanisms of Microtubule Minus-End Organization

Microtubule organization has a crucial role in regulating cell architecture. The geometry of microtubule arrays strongly depends on the distribution of sites responsible for microtubule nucleation and minus-end attachment. In cycling animal cells, the centrosome often represents a dominant microtubule-organizing center (MTOC). However, even in cells with a radial microtubule system, many microtubules are not anchored at the centrosome, but are instead linked to the Golgi apparatus or other structures. Non-centrosomal microtubules predominate in many types of differentiated cell and in mitotic spindles. In this review, we discuss recent advances in understanding how the organization of centrosomal and non-centrosomal microtubule networks is controlled by proteins involved in microtubule nucleation and specific factors that recognize free microtubule minus ends and regulate their localization and dynamics.

Microtubule-Organizing Centers

The organization of microtubule networks is crucial for controlling chromosome segregation during cell division, for positioning and transport of different organelles, and for cell polarity and morphogenesis. The geometry of microtubule arrays strongly depends on the localization and activity of the sites where microtubules are nucleated and where their minus ends are anchored. Such sites are often clustered into structures known as microtubule-organizing centers, which include the centrosomes in animals and spindle pole bodies in fungi. In addition, other microtubules, as well as membrane compartments such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus, and the cell cortex, can nucleate, stabilize, and tether microtubule minus ends. These activities depend on microtubule-nucleating factors, such as γ-tubulin-containing complexes and their activators and receptors, and microtubule minus end-stabilizing proteins with their binding partners. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on how such factors work together to control microtubule organization in different systems.

Microtubule organization: A complex solution

Microtubule nucleation within cells is catalyzed by γ-tubulin ring complexes localized at specific microtubule-organizing centers. In this issue, Muroyama et al. (2016. J. Cell Biol.http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201601099) reveal heterogeneity in the composition and function of these complexes, with wide implications for how cells organize their microtubule arrays.

MAARS: a novel high-content acquisition software for the analysis of mitotic defects in fission yeast

Faithful segregation of chromosomes during cell division relies on multiple processes such as chromosome attachment and correct spindle positioning. Yet mitotic progression is defined by multiple parameters, which need to be quantitatively evaluated. To study the spatiotemporal control of mitotic progression, we developed a high-content analysis (HCA) approach that combines automated fluorescence microscopy with real-time quantitative image analysis and allows the unbiased acquisition of multiparametric data at the single-cell level for hundreds of cells simultaneously. The Mitotic Analysis and Recording System (MAARS) provides automatic and quantitative single-cell analysis of mitotic progression on an open-source platform. It can be used to analyze specific characteristics such as cell shape, cell size, metaphase/anaphase delays, and mitotic abnormalities including spindle mispositioning, spindle elongation defects, and chromosome segregation defects. Using this HCA approach, we were able to visualize rare and unexpected events of error correction during anaphase in wild-type or mutant cells. Our study illustrates that such an expert system of mitotic progression is able to highlight the complexity of the mechanisms required to prevent chromosome loss during cell division.

MOZART1 and γ-tubulin complex receptors are both required to turn γ-TuSC into an active microtubule nucleation template

Cells use γ-tubulin complex to nucleate microtubules. The assembly of active microtubule nucleator is spatially and temporally regulated through the cell cycle. Lin et al. show that the protein Mzt1/MOZART1 and γ-tubulin complex receptors directly interact and act together to assemble the γ-tubulin small complex into an active microtubule nucleation template and that such interaction is conserved between Candida albicans and human cells.

MOZART1/Mzt1 is required for the localization of γ-tubulin complexes to microtubule (MT)–organizing centers from yeast to human cells. Nevertheless, the molecular function of MOZART1/Mzt1 is largely unknown. Taking advantage of the minimal MT nucleation system of Candida albicans, we reconstituted the interactions of Mzt1, γ-tubulin small complex (γ-TuSC), and γ-tubulin complex receptors (γ-TuCRs) Spc72 and Spc110 in vitro. With affinity measurements, domain deletion, and swapping, we show that Spc110 and Mzt1 bind to distinct regions of the γ-TuSC. In contrast, both Mzt1 and γ-TuSC interact with the conserved CM1 motif of Spc110/Spc72. Spc110/Spc72 and Mzt1 constitute “oligomerization chaperones,” cooperatively promoting and directing γ-TuSC oligomerization into MT nucleation-competent rings. Consistent with the functions of Mzt1, human MOZART1 directly interacts with the CM1-containing region of the γ-TuCR CEP215. MOZART1 depletion in human cells destabilizes the large γ-tubulin ring complex and abolishes CEP215^CM1-induced ectopic MT nucleation. Together, we reveal conserved functions of MOZART1/Mzt1 through interactions with γ-tubulin complex subunits and γ-TuCRs.

Remodeling of the Fission Yeast Cdc42 Cell-Polarity Module via the Sty1 p38 Stress-Activated Protein Kinase Pathway

The Rho family GTPase Cdc42 is a key regulator of eukaryotic cellular organization and cell polarity [1]. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, active Cdc42 and associated effectors and regulators (the "Cdc42 polarity module") coordinate polarized growth at cell tips by controlling the actin cytoskeleton and exocytosis [2-4]. Localization of the Cdc42 polarity module to cell tips is thus critical for its function. Here we show that the fission yeast stress-activated protein kinase Sty1, a homolog of mammalian p38 MAP kinase, regulates localization of the Cdc42 polarity module. In wild-type cells, treatment with latrunculin A, a drug that leads to actin depolymerization, induces dispersal of the Cdc42 module from cell tips and cessation of polarized growth [5, 6]. We show that latrunculin A treatment also activates the Sty1 MAP kinase pathway and, strikingly, we find that loss of Sty1 MAP kinase signaling prevents latrunculin A-induced dispersal of the Cdc42 module, allowing polarized growth even in complete absence of the actin cytoskeleton. Regulation of the Cdc42 module by Sty1 is independent of Sty1's role in stress-induced gene expression. We also describe a system for activation of Sty1 kinase "on demand" in the absence of any external stress, and use this to show that Sty1 activation alone is sufficient to disperse the Cdc42 module from cell tips in otherwise unperturbed cells. During nitrogen-starvation-induced quiescence, inhibition of Sty1 converts non-growing, depolarized cells into growing, polarized cells. Our results place MAP kinase Sty1 as an important physiological regulator of the Cdc42 polarity module.

Analysis of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe Cell Cycle

Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells are rod shaped, and they grow by tip elongation. Growth ceases during mitosis and cell division; therefore, the length of a septated cell is a direct measure of the timing of mitotic commitment, and the length of a wild-type cell is an indicator of its position in the cell cycle. A large number of documented stage-specific changes can be used as landmarks to characterize cell cycle progression under specific experimental conditions. Conditional mutations can permanently or transiently block the cell cycle at almost any stage. Large, synchronously dividing cell populations, essential for the biochemical analysis of cell cycle events, can be generated by induction synchrony (arrest-release of a cell cycle mutant) or selection synchrony (centrifugal elutriation or lactose-gradient centrifugation). Schizosaccharomyces pombe cell cycle studies routinely combine particular markers, mutants, and synchronization procedures to manipulate the cycle. We describe these techniques and list key landmarks in the fission yeast mitotic cell division cycle.

Synergistic role of fission yeast Alp16GCP6 and Mzt1MOZART1 in γ-tubulin complex recruitment to mitotic spindle pole bodies and spindle assembly

In fission yeast, γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC)-specific components Gfh1(GCP4), Mod21(GCP5), and Alp16(GCP6) are nonessential for cell growth. Of these deletion mutants, only alp16Δ shows synthetic lethality with temperature-sensitive mutants of Mzt1(MOZART1), a component of the γTuRC required for recruitment of the complex to microtubule-organizing centers. γ-Tubulin small complex levels at mitotic spindle pole bodies (SPBs, the centrosome equivalent in fungi) and microtubule levels for preanaphase spindles are significantly reduced in alp16Δ cells but not in gfh1Δ or mod21Δ cells. Furthermore, alp16Δ cells often form monopolar spindles and frequently lose a minichromosome when the spindle assembly checkpoint is inactivated. Alp16(GCP6) promotes Mzt1-dependent γTuRC recruitment to mitotic SPBs and enhances spindle microtubule assembly in a manner dependent on its expression levels. Gfh1(GCP4) and Mod21(GCP5) are not required for Alp16(GCP6)-dependent γTuRC recruitment. Mzt1 has an additional role in the activation of the γTuRC for spindle microtubule assembly. The ratio of Mzt1 to γTuRC levels for preanaphase spindles is higher than at other stages of the cell cycle. Mzt1 overproduction enhances spindle microtubule assembly without affecting γTuRC levels at mitotic SPBs. We propose that Alp16(GCP6) and Mzt1 act synergistically for efficient bipolar spindle assembly to ensure faithful chromosome segregation.

Higher-order oligomerization of Spc110p drives γ-tubulin ring complex assembly

Assembly of the microtubule-nucleating γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) requires higher-order oligomerization of Spc110p, which connects γTuRC to the yeast spindle pole body (SPB). Because Spc110p is highly concentrated at the SPB, spatial regulation of microtubule nucleation is thus achieved by exclusive assembly of γTuRCs proximal to the SPB.

The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton plays important roles in many cellular processes. In vivo, MT nucleation is controlled by the γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC), a 2.1-MDa complex composed of γ-tubulin small complex (γTuSC) subunits. The mechanisms underlying the assembly of γTuRC are largely unknown. In yeast, the conserved protein Spc110p both stimulates the assembly of the γTuRC and anchors the γTuRC to the spindle pole body. Using a quantitative in vitro FRET assay, we show that γTuRC assembly is critically dependent on the oligomerization state of Spc110p, with higher-order oligomers dramatically enhancing the stability of assembled γTuRCs. Our in vitro findings were confirmed with a novel in vivo γTuSC recruitment assay. We conclude that precise spatial control over MT nucleation is achieved by coupling localization and higher-order oligomerization of the receptor for γTuRC.

A CEP215-HSET complex links centrosomes with spindle poles and drives centrosome clustering in cancer

Numerical centrosome aberrations underlie certain developmental abnormalities and may promote cancer. A cell maintains normal centrosome numbers by coupling centrosome duplication with segregation, which is achieved through sustained association of each centrosome with a mitotic spindle pole. Although the microcephaly- and primordial dwarfism-linked centrosomal protein CEP215 has been implicated in this process, the molecular mechanism responsible remains unclear. Here, using proteomic profiling, we identify the minus end-directed microtubule motor protein HSET as a direct binding partner of CEP215. Targeted deletion of the HSET-binding domain of CEP215 in vertebrate cells causes centrosome detachment and results in HSET depletion at centrosomes, a phenotype also observed in CEP215-deficient patient-derived cells. Moreover, in cancer cells with centrosome amplification, the CEP215-HSET complex promotes the clustering of extra centrosomes into pseudo-bipolar spindles, thereby ensuring viable cell division. Therefore, stabilization of the centrosome-spindle pole interface by the CEP215-HSET complex could promote survival of cancer cells containing supernumerary centrosomes.

MZT1 regulates microtubule nucleation by linking γTuRC assembly to adapter-mediated targeting and activation

Regulation of the γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) through targeting and activation restricts nucleation of microtubules to microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), aiding in the assembly of ordered microtubule arrays. However, the mechanistic basis of this important regulation remains poorly understood. Here we show that in human cells γTuRC integrity, determined by the presence of γ-tubulin complex proteins (GCPs) 2-6, is a prerequisite for interaction with the targeting factor NEDD1, impacting on essentially all γ-tubulin dependent functions. Recognition of γTuRC integrity is mediated by MZT1, which binds not only to the GCP3 subunit as previously shown, but cooperatively also to other GCPs through a conserved hydrophobic motif present in the N-termini of GCP2, GCP3, GCP5, and GCP6. MZT1 knockdown causes severe cellular defects under conditions that leave γTuRC intact, suggesting that the essential function of MZT1 is not in γTuRC assembly. Instead, MZT1 specifically binds fully assembled γTuRC to enable interaction with NEDD1 for targeting, and with the CM1 domain of CDK5RAP2 for stimulating nucleation activity. Thus, MZT1 is a ‘priming factor’ for the γTuRC that allows spatial regulation of nucleation.

Cep169, a Novel Microtubule Plus-End-Tracking Centrosomal Protein, Binds to CDK5RAP2 and Regulates Microtubule Stability

The centrosomal protein, CDK5RAP2, is a microcephaly protein that regulates centrosomal maturation by recruitment of a γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC) onto centrosomes. In this report, we identified a novel human centrosomal protein, Cep169, as a binding partner of CDK5RAP2, a member of microtubule plus-end-tracking proteins (+TIPs). Cep169 interacts directly with CDK5RAP2 through CM1, an evolutionarily conserved domain, and colocalizes at the pericentriolar matrix (PCM) around centrioles with CDK5RAP2. In addition, Cep169 interacts with EB1 through SxIP-motif responsible for EB1 binding, and colocalizes with CDK5RAP2 at the microtubule plus-end. EB1-binding–deficient Cep169 abolishes EB1 interaction and microtubule plus-end attachment, indicating Cep169 as a novel member of +TIPs. We further show that ectopic expression of either Cep169 or CDK5RAP2 induces microtubule bundling and acetylation in U2OS cells, and depletion of Cep169 induces microtubule depolymerization in HeLa cells, although Cep169 is not required for assembly of γ-tubulin onto centrosome by CDK5RAP2. These results show that Cep169 targets microtubule tips and regulates stability of microtubules with CDK5RAP2.

Mto2 multisite phosphorylation inactivates non-spindle microtubule nucleation complexes during mitosis

Microtubule nucleation is highly regulated during the eukaryotic cell cycle, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. During mitosis in fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, cytoplasmic microtubule nucleation ceases simultaneously with intranuclear mitotic spindle assembly. Cytoplasmic nucleation depends on the Mto1/2 complex, which binds and activates the γ-tubulin complex and also recruits the γ-tubulin complex to both centrosomal (spindle pole body) and non-centrosomal sites. Here we show that the Mto1/2 complex disassembles during mitosis, coincident with hyperphosphorylation of Mto2 protein. By mapping and mutating multiple Mto2 phosphorylation sites, we generate mto2-phosphomutant strains with enhanced Mto1/2 complex stability, interaction with the γ-tubulin complex and microtubule nucleation activity. A mutant with 24 phosphorylation sites mutated to alanine, mto2[24A], retains interphase-like behaviour even in mitotic cells. This provides a molecular-level understanding of how phosphorylation ‘switches off' microtubule nucleation complexes during the cell cycle and, more broadly, illuminates mechanisms regulating non-centrosomal microtubule nucleation.

In S. pombe, cytoplasmic microtubule nucleation, which depends on the Mto1/2 complex, ceases during mitosis. Here, Borek et al., show that multisite phosphorylation of Mto1/2 during mitosis disassembles the Mto1/2 complex and prevents microtubule nucleation activity.

A stable microtubule array drives fission yeast polarity reestablishment upon quiescence exit

Cells perpetually face the decision to proliferate or to stay quiescent. Here we show that upon quiescence establishment, Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells drastically rearrange both their actin and microtubule (MT) cytoskeletons and lose their polarity. Indeed, while polarity markers are lost from cell extremities, actin patches and cables are reorganized into actin bodies, which are stable actin filament-containing structures. Astonishingly, MTs are also stabilized and rearranged into a novel antiparallel bundle associated with the spindle pole body, named Q-MT bundle. We have identified proteins involved in this process and propose a molecular model for Q-MT bundle formation. Finally and importantly, we reveal that Q-MT bundle elongation is involved in polarity reestablishment upon quiescence exit and thereby the efficient return to the proliferative state. Our work demonstrates that quiescent S. pombe cells assemble specific cytoskeleton structures that improve the swiftness of the transition back to proliferation.

Shaping of interphase chromosomes by the microtubule network

It is well established that microtubule dynamics play a major role in chromosome condensation and localization during mitosis. During interphase, however, it is assumed that the metazoan nuclear envelope presents a physical barrier, which inhibits interaction between the microtubules located in the cytoplasm and the chromatin fibers located in the nucleus. In recent years, it has become apparent that microtubule dynamics alter chromatin structure and function during interphase as well. Microtubule motor proteins transport several transcription factors and exogenous DNA (such as plasmid DNA) from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. Various soluble microtubule components are able to translocate into the nucleus, where they bind various chromatin elements leading to transcriptional alterations. In addition, microtubules may apply force on the nuclear envelope, which is transmitted into the nucleus, leading to changes in chromatin structure. Thus, microtubule dynamics during interphase may affect chromatin spatial organization, as well as transcription, replication and repair.

The centrosome-Golgi apparatus nexus

A shared feature among all microtubule (MT)-dependent processes is the requirement for MTs to be organized in arrays of defined geometry. At a fundamental level, this is achieved by precisely controlling the timing and localization of the nucleation events that give rise to new MTs. To this end, MT nucleation is restricted to specific subcellular sites called MT-organizing centres. The primary MT-organizing centre in proliferating animal cells is the centrosome. However, the discovery of MT nucleation capacity of the Golgi apparatus (GA) has substantially changed our understanding of MT network organization in interphase cells. Interestingly, MT nucleation at the Golgi apparently relies on multiprotein complexes, similar to those present at the centrosome, that assemble at the cis-face of the organelle. In this process, AKAP450 plays a central role, acting as a scaffold to recruit other centrosomal proteins important for MT generation. MT arrays derived from either the centrosome or the GA differ in their geometry, probably reflecting their different, yet complementary, functions. Here, I review our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in MT nucleation at the GA and how Golgi- and centrosome-based MT arrays work in concert to ensure the formation of a pericentrosomal polarized continuous Golgi ribbon structure, a critical feature for cell polarity in mammalian cells. In addition, I comment on the important role of the Golgi-nucleated MTs in organizing specialized MT arrays that serve specific functions in terminally differentiated cells.

A genomic Multiprocess survey of machineries that control and link cell shape, microtubule organization, and cell-cycle progression

Understanding cells as integrated systems requires that we systematically decipher how single genes affect multiple biological processes and how processes are functionally linked. Here, we used multiprocess phenotypic profiling, combining high-resolution 3D confocal microscopy and multiparametric image analysis, to simultaneously survey the fission yeast genome with respect to three key cellular processes: cell shape, microtubule organization, and cell-cycle progression. We identify, validate, and functionally annotate 262 genes controlling specific aspects of those processes. Of these, 62% had not been linked to these processes before and 35% are implicated in multiple processes. Importantly, we identify a conserved role for DNA-damage responses in controlling microtubule stability. In addition, we investigate how the processes are functionally linked. We show unexpectedly that disruption of cell-cycle progression does not necessarily affect cell size control and that distinct aspects of cell shape regulate microtubules and vice versa, identifying important systems-level links across these processes.