Chloroplast signaling: retrograde regulation revelations

Chloroplast: The Emerging Battlefield in Plant-Microbe Interactions

Higher plants and some algae convert the absorbed light into chemical energy through one of the most important organelles, chloroplast, for photosynthesis and store it in the form of organic compounds to supply their life activities. However, more and more studies have shown that the role of chloroplasts is more than a factory for photosynthesis. In the process of light conversion to chemical energy, any damage to the components of chloroplast may affect the photosynthesis efficiency and promote the production of by-products, reactive oxygen species, that are mainly produced in the chloroplasts. Substantial evidence show that chloroplasts are also involved in the battle of plants and microbes. Chloroplasts are important in integrating a variety of external environmental stimuli and regulate plant immune responses by transmitting signals to the nucleus and other cell compartments through retrograde signaling pathways. Besides, chloroplasts can also regulate the biosynthesis and signal transduction of phytohormones, including salicylic acid and jasmonic acid, to affect the interaction between the plants and microbes. Since chloroplasts play such an important role in plant immunity, correspondingly, chloroplasts have become the target of pathogens. Different microbial pathogens target the chloroplast and affect its functions to promote their colonization in the host plants.

Chloroplast: the Trojan horse in plant-virus interaction

The chloroplast is one of the most dynamic organelles of a plant cell. It carries out photosynthesis, synthesizes major phytohormones, plays an active part in the defence response and is crucial for interorganelle signalling. Viruses, on the other hand, are extremely strategic in manipulating the internal environment of the host cell. The chloroplast, a prime target for viruses, undergoes enormous structural and functional damage during viral infection. Indeed, large proportions of affected gene products in a virus-infected plant are closely associated with the chloroplast and the process of photosynthesis. Although the chloroplast is deficient in gene silencing machinery, it elicits the effector-triggered immune response against viral pathogens. Virus infection induces the organelle to produce an extensive network of stromules which are involved in both viral propagation and antiviral defence. From studies over the last few decades, the involvement of the chloroplast in the regulation of plant-virus interaction has become increasingly evident. This review presents an exhaustive account of these facts, with their implications for pathogenicity. We have attempted to highlight the intricacies of chloroplast-virus interactions and to explain the existing gaps in our current knowledge, which will enable virologists to utilize chloroplast genome-based antiviral resistance in economically important crops.

The chloroplastic DEVH-box RNA helicase INCREASED SIZE EXCLUSION LIMIT 2 involved in plasmodesmata regulation is required for group II intron splicing

INCREASED SIZE EXCLUSION LIMIT 2 (ISE2) encodes a putative DEVH-box RNA helicase originally identified through a genetic screening for Arabidopsis mutants altered in plasmodesmata (PD) aperture. Depletion of ISE2 also affects chloroplasts activity, decreases accumulation of photosynthetic pigments and alters expression of photosynthetic genes. In this work, we show the chloroplast localization of ISE2 and decipher its role in plastidic RNA processing and, consequently, PD function. Group II intron-containing RNAs from chloroplasts exhibit defective splicing in ise2 mutants and ISE2-silenced plants, compromising plastid viability. Furthermore, RNA immunoprecipitation suggests that ISE2 binds in vivo to several splicing-regulated RNAs. Finally, we show that the chloroplast clpr2 mutant (defective in a subunit of a plastidic Clp protease) also exhibits abnormal PD function during embryogenesis, supporting the idea that chloroplast RNA processing is required to regulate cell-cell communication in plants.

Light intensity-dependent retrograde signalling in higher plants

Plants are able to acclimate to highly fluctuating light environment and evolved a short- and long-term light acclimatory responses, that are dependent on chloroplasts retrograde signalling. In this review we summarise recent evidences suggesting that the chloroplasts act as key sensors of light intensity changes in a wide range (low, high and excess light conditions) as well as sensors of darkness. They also participate in transduction and synchronisation of systemic retrograde signalling in response to differential light exposure of distinct leaves. Regulation of intra- and inter-cellular chloroplast retrograde signalling is dependent on the developmental and functional stage of the plastids. Therefore, it is discussed in following subsections: firstly, chloroplast biogenic control of nuclear genes, for example, signals related to photosystems and pigment biogenesis during early plastid development; secondly, signals in the mature chloroplast induced by changes in photosynthetic electron transport, reactive oxygen species, hormones and metabolite biosynthesis; thirdly, chloroplast signalling during leaf senescence. Moreover, with a help of meta-analysis of multiple microarray experiments, we showed that the expression of the same set of genes is regulated specifically in particular types of signals and types of light conditions. Furthermore, we also highlight the alternative scenarios of the chloroplast retrograde signals transduction and coordination linked to the role of photo-electrochemical signalling.

Identification and molecular characterization of a novel Chlamydomonas reinhardtii mutant defective in chlorophyll biosynthesis

The green micro-alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is an elegant model organism to study all aspects of oxygenic photosynthesis. Chlorophyll (Chl) and heme are major tetrapyrroles that play an essential role in energy metabolism in photosynthetic organisms and are synthesized via a common branched tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway. One of the enzymes in the pathway is Mg chelatase (MgChel) which inserts Mg (2+) into protoporphyrin IX (PPIX, proto) to form magnesium-protoporphyrin IX (MgPPIX, Mgproto), the first biosynthetic intermediate in the Chl branch. MgChel is a multimeric enzyme that consists of three subunits designated CHLD, CHLI and CHLH. Plants have two isozymes of CHLI (CHLI1 and CHLI2) which are 70%-81% identical in protein sequences. Although the functional role of CHLI1 is well characterized, that of CHLI2 is not. We have isolated a non-photosynthetic light sensitive mutant 5A7 by random DNA insertional mutagenesis that is devoid of any detectable Chl. PCR based analyses show that 5A7 is missing the CHLI1 gene and at least eight additional functionally uncharacterized genes. 5A7 has an intact CHLI2 gene. Complementation with a functional copy of the CHLI1 gene restored Chl biosynthesis, photo-autotrophic growth and light tolerance in 5A7. We have identified the first chli1 mutant of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and in green algae. Our results show that in the wild type Chlamydomonas CHLI2 protein amount is lower than that of CHLI1 and the chli1 mutant has a drastic reduction in CHLI2 protein levels although it possesses the CHLI2 gene. Our chli1 mutant opens up new avenues to explore the functional roles of CHLI1 and CHLI2 in Chl biosynthesis and chloroplast to nucleus retrograde signaling in Chlamydomonas, which has never been studied before.

Identification and molecular characterization of a novel Chlamydomonas reinhardtii mutant defective in chlorophyll biosynthesis

The green micro-alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is an elegant model organism to study all aspects of oxygenic photosynthesis. Chlorophyll (Chl) and heme are major tetrapyrroles that play an essential role in energy metabolism in photosynthetic organisms and are synthesized via a common branched tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway. One of the enzymes in the pathway is Mg chelatase (MgChel) which inserts Mg (2+) into protoporphyrin IX (PPIX, proto) to form magnesium-protoporphyrin IX (MgPPIX, Mgproto), the first biosynthetic intermediate in the Chl branch. MgChel is a multimeric enzyme that consists of three subunits designated CHLD, CHLI and CHLH. Plants have two isozymes of CHLI (CHLI1 and CHLI2) which are 70%-81% identical in protein sequences. Although the functional role of CHLI1 is well characterized, that of CHLI2 is not. We have isolated a non-photosynthetic light sensitive mutant 5A7 by random DNA insertional mutagenesis that is devoid of any detectable Chl. PCR based analyses show that 5A7 is missing the CHLI1 gene and at least eight additional functionally uncharacterized genes. 5A7 has an intact CHLI2 gene. Complementation with a functional copy of the CHLI1 gene restored Chl biosynthesis, photo-autotrophic growth and light tolerance in 5A7. We have identified the first chli1 (chli1-1) mutant of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and in green algae. Our results show that in the wild type Chlamydomonas CHLI2 protein amount is lower than that of CHLI1 and the chli1-1 mutant has a drastic reduction in CHLI2 protein levels although it possesses the CHLI2 gene. Our chli1-1 mutant opens up new avenues to explore the functional roles of CHLI1 and CHLI2 in Chl biosynthesis in Chlamydomonas, which has never been studied before.

Plastid-to-nucleus communication, signals controlling the running of the plant cell

The presence of genes encoding organellar proteins in both the nucleus and the organelle necessitates tight coordination of expression by the different genomes, and this has led to the evolution of sophisticated intracellular signaling networks. Organelle-to-nucleus signaling, or retrograde control, coordinates the expression of nuclear genes encoding organellar proteins with the metabolic and developmental state of the organelle. Complex networks of retrograde signals orchestrate major changes in nuclear gene expression and coordinate cellular activities and assist the cell during plant development and stress responses. It has become clear that, even though the chloroplast depends on the nucleus for its function, plastid signals play important roles in an array of different cellular processes vital to the plant. Hence, the chloroplast exerts significant control over the running of the cell. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Import and Quality Control in Mitochondria and Plastids.

The PSBP2 protein of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is required for singlet oxygen-dependent signaling

In the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, the cytosolic Glutathione Peroxidase 5 gene (GPX5) is known to be transcriptionally up-regulated in response to singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)). As demonstrated by previous studies, fusion of the promoter region of GPX5 to the Arylsulfatase 2 gene (ARS2) creates an effective reporter system that can be used to monitor (1)O(2)-driven GPX5 expression. This system was also used in this study to generate a stably transformed C. reinhardtii strain which expresses ARS2 in a (1)O(2)-dependent manner, resulting in the synthesis of a functional protein with detectable activity. Using the strain of C. reinhardtii harboring a (1)O(2)-sensitive reporter construct, a secondary mutagenic screen was performed. This allowed identification of mutant cell lines that were unable to up-regulate expression of the GPX5-ARS2 fusion in response to (1)O(2). In one of these lines, the mutation was subsequently localized to the first exon of the PSBP-like gene (PSBP2). The PSBP2 gene is part of a small protein family in C. reinhardtii, also present in all angiosperms studied thus far. While each member of the PSBP protein family contains a similar domain to the PSBP1 protein, which is a member of the oxygen evolving complex of photosystem II (PSII), the PSBP2 protein does not appear to be involved in PSII function, but may function as a sensor and/or signal mediating molecule of the (1)O(2) generated in the chloroplast.

Retrograde signaling by the plastidial metabolite MEcPP regulates expression of nuclear stress-response genes

Plastid-derived signals are known to coordinate expression of nuclear genes encoding plastid-localized proteins in a process termed retrograde signaling. To date, the identity of retrograde-signaling molecules has remained elusive. Here, we show that methylerythritol cyclodiphosphate (MEcPP), a precursor of isoprenoids produced by the plastidial methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway, elicits the expression of selected stress-responsive nuclear-encoded plastidial proteins. Genetic and pharmacological manipulations of the individual MEP pathway metabolite levels demonstrate the high specificity of MEcPP as an inducer of these targeted stress-responsive genes. We further demonstrate that abiotic stresses elevate MEcPP levels, eliciting the expression of the aforementioned genes. We propose that the MEP pathway, in addition to producing isoprenoids, functions as a stress sensor and a coordinator of expression of targeted stress-responsive nuclear genes via modulation of the levels of MEcPP, a specific and critical retrograde-signaling metabolite.

Plastid-to-nucleus communication, signals controlling the running of the plant cell

The presence of genes encoding organellar proteins in both the nucleus and the organelle necessitates tight coordination of expression by the different genomes, and this has led to the evolution of sophisticated intracellular signaling networks. Organelle-to-nucleus signaling, or retrograde control, coordinates the expression of nuclear genes encoding organellar proteins with the metabolic and developmental state of the organelle. Complex networks of retrograde signals orchestrate major changes in nuclear gene expression and coordinate cellular activities and assist the cell during plant development and stress responses. It has become clear that, even though the chloroplast depends on the nucleus for its function, plastid signals play important roles in an array of different cellular processes vital to the plant. Hence, the chloroplast exerts significant control over the running of the cell. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Import and Quality Control in Mitochondria and Plastids.

Photosynthetic control of electron transport and the regulation of gene expression

The term 'photosynthetic control' describes the short- and long-term mechanisms that regulate reactions in the photosynthetic electron transport (PET) chain so that the rate of production of ATP and NADPH is coordinated with the rate of their utilization in metabolism. At low irradiances these mechanisms serve to optimize light use efficiency, while at high irradiances they operate to dissipate excess excitation energy as heat. Similarly, the production of ATP and NADPH in ratios tailored to meet demand is finely tuned by a sophisticated series of controls that prevents the accumulation of high NAD(P)H/NAD(P) ratios and ATP/ADP ratios that would lead to potentially harmful over-reduction and inactivation of PET chain components. In recent years, photosynthetic control has also been extrapolated to the regulation of gene expression because mechanisms that are identical or similar to those that serve to regulate electron flow through the PET chain also coordinate the regulated expression of genes encoding photosynthetic proteins. This requires coordinated gene expression in the chloroplasts, mitochondria, and nuclei, involving complex networks of forward and retrograde signalling pathways. Photosynthetic control operates to control photosynthetic gene expression in response to environmental and metabolic changes. Mining literature data on transcriptome profiles of C(3) and C(4) leaves from plants grown under high atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO(2)) levels compared with those grown with ambient CO(2) reveals that the transition to higher photorespiratory conditions in C(3) plants enhances the expression of genes associated with cyclic electron flow pathways in Arabidopsis thaliana, consistent with the higher ATP requirement (relative to NADPH) of photorespiration.

Organelle-nucleus cross-talk regulates plant intercellular communication via plasmodesmata

We use Arabidopsis thaliana embryogenesis as a model system for studying intercellular transport via plasmodesmata (PD). A forward genetic screen for altered PD transport identified increased size exclusion limit (ise) 1 and ise2 mutants with increased intercellular transport of fluorescent 10-kDa tracers. Both ise1 and ise2 exhibit increased formation of twinned and branched PD. ISE1 encodes a mitochondrial DEAD-box RNA helicase, whereas ISE2 encodes a DEVH-type RNA helicase. Here, we show that ISE2 foci are localized to the chloroplast stroma. Surprisingly, plastid development is defective in both ise1 and ise2 mutant embryos. In an effort to understand how RNA helicases that localize to different organelles have similar impacts on plastid and PD development/function, we performed whole-genome expression analyses. The most significantly affected class of transcripts in both mutants encode products that target to and enable plastid function. These results reinforce the importance of plastid-mitochondria-nucleus cross-talk, add PD as a critical player in the plant cell communication network, and thereby illuminate a previously undescribed signaling pathway dubbed organelle-nucleus-plasmodesmata signaling. Several genes with roles in cell wall synthesis and modification are also differentially expressed in both mutants, providing new targets for investigating PD development and function.