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Lacy KD, Hart T, Kronauer DJC. Co-inheritance of recombined chromatids maintains heterozygosity in a parthenogenetic ant. Nat Ecol Evol 2024:10.1038/s41559-024-02455-z. [PMID: 39014144 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-024-02455-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
According to Mendel's second law, chromosomes segregate randomly in meiosis. Non-random segregation is primarily known for cases of selfish meiotic drive in females, in which particular alleles bias their own transmission into the oocyte. Here we report a rare example of unselfish meiotic drive for crossover inheritance in the clonal raider ant, Ooceraea biroi, in which both alleles are co-inherited at all loci across the entire genome. This species produces diploid offspring parthenogenetically via fusion of two haploid nuclei from the same meiosis. This process should cause rapid genotypic degeneration due to loss of heterozygosity, which results if crossover recombination is followed by random (Mendelian) segregation of chromosomes. However, by comparing whole genomes of mothers and daughters, we show that loss of heterozygosity is exceedingly rare, raising the possibility that crossovers are infrequent or absent in O. biroi meiosis. Using a combination of cytology and whole-genome sequencing, we show that crossover recombination is, in fact, common but that loss of heterozygosity is avoided because crossover products are faithfully co-inherited. This results from a programmed violation of Mendel's law of segregation, such that crossover products segregate together rather than randomly. This discovery highlights an extreme example of cellular 'memory' of crossovers, which could be a common yet cryptic feature of chromosomal segregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kip D Lacy
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Taylor Hart
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Daniel J C Kronauer
- Laboratory of Social Evolution and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York, NY, USA.
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2
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Pettie N, Llopart A, Comeron JM. Meiotic, genomic and evolutionary properties of crossover distribution in Drosophila yakuba. PLoS Genet 2022; 18:e1010087. [PMID: 35320272 PMCID: PMC8979470 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1010087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The number and location of crossovers across genomes are highly regulated during meiosis, yet the key components controlling them are fast evolving, hindering our understanding of the mechanistic causes and evolutionary consequences of changes in crossover rates. Drosophila melanogaster has been a model species to study meiosis for more than a century, with an available high-resolution crossover map that is, nonetheless, missing for closely related species, thus preventing evolutionary context. Here, we applied a novel and highly efficient approach to generate whole-genome high-resolution crossover maps in D. yakuba to tackle multiple questions that benefit from being addressed collectively within an appropriate phylogenetic framework, in our case the D. melanogaster species subgroup. The genotyping of more than 1,600 individual meiotic events allowed us to identify several key distinct properties relative to D. melanogaster. We show that D. yakuba, in addition to higher crossover rates than D. melanogaster, has a stronger centromere effect and crossover assurance than any Drosophila species analyzed to date. We also report the presence of an active crossover-associated meiotic drive mechanism for the X chromosome that results in the preferential inclusion in oocytes of chromatids with crossovers. Our evolutionary and genomic analyses suggest that the genome-wide landscape of crossover rates in D. yakuba has been fairly stable and captures a significant signal of the ancestral crossover landscape for the whole D. melanogaster subgroup, even informative for the D. melanogaster lineage. Contemporary crossover rates in D. melanogaster, on the other hand, do not recapitulate ancestral crossovers landscapes. As a result, the temporal stability of crossover landscapes observed in D. yakuba makes this species an ideal system for applying population genetic models of selection and linkage, given that these models assume temporal constancy in linkage effects. Our studies emphasize the importance of generating multiple high-resolution crossover rate maps within a coherent phylogenetic context to broaden our understanding of crossover control during meiosis and to improve studies on the evolutionary consequences of variable crossover rates across genomes and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikale Pettie
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Ana Llopart
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Josep M. Comeron
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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3
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Lee Y, Trout A, Marti-Gutierrez N, Kang S, Xie P, Mikhalchenko A, Kim B, Choi J, So S, Han J, Xu J, Koski A, Ma H, Yoon JD, Van Dyken C, Darby H, Liang D, Li Y, Tippner-Hedges R, Xu F, Amato P, Palermo GD, Mitalipov S, Kang E. Haploidy in somatic cells is induced by mature oocytes in mice. Commun Biol 2022; 5:95. [PMID: 35079104 PMCID: PMC8789866 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03040-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Haploidy is naturally observed in gametes; however, attempts of experimentally inducing haploidy in somatic cells have not been successful. Here, we demonstrate that the replacement of meiotic spindles in mature metaphases II (MII) arrested oocytes with nuclei of somatic cells in the G0/G1 stage of cell cycle results in the formation of de novo spindles consisting of somatic homologous chromosomes comprising of single chromatids. Fertilization of such oocytes with sperm triggers the extrusion of one set of homologous chromosomes into the pseudo-polar body (PPB), resulting in a zygote with haploid somatic and sperm pronuclei (PN). Upon culture, 18% of somatic-sperm zygotes reach the blastocyst stage, and 16% of them possess heterozygous diploid genomes consisting of somatic haploid and sperm homologs across all chromosomes. We also generate embryonic stem cells and live offspring from somatic-sperm embryos. Our finding may offer an alternative strategy for generating oocytes carrying somatic genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeonmi Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea
- Center for Embryo and Stem Cell Research, CHA Advanced Research Institute, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea
| | - Aysha Trout
- The Ronald O. Perelman and Claudia Cohen Center for Reproductive Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Nuria Marti-Gutierrez
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Seoon Kang
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea
- Department of Medical Science, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology (AMIST), University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, 05505, South Korea
| | - Philip Xie
- The Ronald O. Perelman and Claudia Cohen Center for Reproductive Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Aleksei Mikhalchenko
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Bitnara Kim
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea
| | - Jiwan Choi
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea
- Department of Medical Science, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology (AMIST), University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, 05505, South Korea
| | - Seongjun So
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea
- Department of Medical Science, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology (AMIST), University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, 05505, South Korea
| | - Jongsuk Han
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea
| | - Jing Xu
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
- Division of Reproductive and Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97006, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Amy Koski
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Hong Ma
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Junchul David Yoon
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Crystal Van Dyken
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Hayley Darby
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Dan Liang
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Ying Li
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Rebecca Tippner-Hedges
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Fuhua Xu
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Paula Amato
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Gianpiero D Palermo
- The Ronald O. Perelman and Claudia Cohen Center for Reproductive Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
| | - Shoukhrat Mitalipov
- Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA.
| | - Eunju Kang
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea.
- Center for Embryo and Stem Cell Research, CHA Advanced Research Institute, CHA University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi, 13488, South Korea.
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4
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Tyc KM, McCoy RC, Schindler K, Xing J. Mathematical modeling of human oocyte aneuploidy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:10455-10464. [PMID: 32350135 PMCID: PMC7229693 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1912853117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aneuploidy is the leading contributor to pregnancy loss, congenital anomalies, and in vitro fertilization (IVF) failure in humans. Although most aneuploid conceptions are thought to originate from meiotic division errors in the female germline, quantitative studies that link the observed phenotypes to underlying error mechanisms are lacking. In this study, we developed a mathematical modeling framework to quantify the contribution of different mechanisms of erroneous chromosome segregation to the production of aneuploid eggs. Our model considers the probabilities of all possible chromosome gain/loss outcomes that arise from meiotic errors, such as nondisjunction (NDJ) in meiosis I and meiosis II, and premature separation of sister chromatids (PSSC) and reverse segregation (RS) in meiosis I. To understand the contributions of different meiotic errors, we fit our model to aneuploidy data from 11,157 blastocyst-stage embryos. Our best-fitting model captures several known features of female meiosis, for instance, the maternal age effect on PSSC. More importantly, our model reveals previously undescribed patterns, including an increased frequency of meiosis II errors among eggs affected by errors in meiosis I. This observation suggests that the occurrence of NDJ in meiosis II is associated with the ploidy status of an egg. We further demonstrate that the model can be used to identify IVF patients who produce an extreme number of aneuploid embryos. The dynamic nature of our mathematical model makes it a powerful tool both for understanding the relative contributions of mechanisms of chromosome missegregation in human female meiosis and for predicting the outcomes of assisted reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna M Tyc
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854
- Human Genetic Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Rajiv C McCoy
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218
| | - Karen Schindler
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854
- Human Genetic Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Jinchuan Xing
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854;
- Human Genetic Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854
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5
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Bolcun-Filas E, Handel MA. Meiosis: the chromosomal foundation of reproduction. Biol Reprod 2019; 99:112-126. [PMID: 29385397 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioy021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Meiosis is the chromosomal foundation of reproduction, with errors in this important process leading to aneuploidy and/or infertility. In this review celebrating the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Society for the Study of Reproduction, the important chromosomal structures and dynamics contributing to genomic integrity across generations are highlighted. Critical unsolved biological problems are identified, and the advances that will lead to their ultimate resolution are predicted.
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Abstract
In sexual reproduction, opportunities are limited and the stakes are high. This inevitably leads to conflict. One pervasive conflict occurs within genomes between alternative alleles at heterozygous loci. Each gamete and thus each offspring will inherit only one of the two alleles from a heterozygous parent. Most alleles 'play fair' and have a 50% chance of being included in any given gamete. However, alleles can gain an enormous advantage if they act selfishly to force their own transmission into more than half, sometimes even all, of the functional gametes. These selfish alleles are known as 'meiotic drivers', and their cheating often incurs a high cost on the fertility of eukaryotes ranging from plants to mammals. Here, we review how several types of meiotic drivers directly and indirectly contribute to infertility, and argue that a complete picture of the genetics of infertility will require focusing on both the standard alleles - those that play fair - as well as selfish alleles involved in genetic conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Zanders
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | - Robert L Unckless
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
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7
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Ma JY, Yan LY, Wang ZB, Luo SM, Yeung WSB, Ou XH, Sun QY, Qiao J. Meiotic chromatid recombination and segregation assessed with human single cell genome sequencing data. J Med Genet 2018; 56:156-163. [PMID: 30514739 DOI: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2018-105612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The human oocyte transmits one set of haploid genome into female pronucleus (FPN) while discards the remaining genome into the first polar body (PB1) and the second polar body (PB2). The FPN genome carries an assembly of maternal and paternal genome that resulted from homologous recombination during the prophase of the first meiosis. However, how parental genome has been shuffled and transmitted is difficult to assess by analysing only the progeny's genome. OBJECTIVE To assess meiotic chromatid recombination and segregation in human oocytes. METHODS Single cell genome sequencing data of PB1, PB2 and FPN that originated from the same oocyte were used to analyse the human oocyte homologous chromosome interaction and segregation. To analyse whether chromosomes were non-randomly segregated into polar bodies or pronucleus, we analysed the ratio of crossover in PB2 and FPN, and constructed a model to detect the randomness of oocyte chromosome segregation. RESULTS We found that during oocyte meiosis, in addition to homologous chromosome recombination, there was also a genome conversion phenomenon which generated a non-reciprocal genetic information transmission between homologous chromosomes. We also inferred that during meiosis, DNA breaks and repairs frequently occurred at centromere-adjacent regions. From our data we did not find obvious evidence supporting the crossover number-based or SNP-based meiotic drive in oocytes. CONCLUSION In addition to the crossover-based recombination, during human oocyte meiosis, a direct genome conversion between homologous chromosomes is used in some oocytes. Our findings are helpful in understanding the specific features of meiotic chromatid recombination and segregation in human oocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Yu Ma
- Fertility Preservation Lab, Reproductive Medicine Center, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li-Ying Yan
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Third Hospital, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen-Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Ming Luo
- Fertility Preservation Lab, Reproductive Medicine Center, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - William S B Yeung
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiang-Hong Ou
- Fertility Preservation Lab, Reproductive Medicine Center, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qing-Yuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Qiao
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Third Hospital, Peking University, Beijing, China
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8
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Do Gametes Woo? Evidence for Their Nonrandom Union at Fertilization. Genetics 2018; 207:369-387. [PMID: 28978771 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.117.300109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A fundamental tenet of inheritance in sexually reproducing organisms such as humans and laboratory mice is that gametes combine randomly at fertilization, thereby ensuring a balanced and statistically predictable representation of inherited variants in each generation. This principle is encapsulated in Mendel's First Law. But exceptions are known. With transmission ratio distortion, particular alleles are preferentially transmitted to offspring. Preferential transmission usually occurs in one sex but not both, and is not known to require interactions between gametes at fertilization. A reanalysis of our published work in mice and of data in other published reports revealed instances where any of 12 mutant genes biases fertilization, with either too many or too few heterozygotes and homozygotes, depending on the mutant gene and on dietary conditions. Although such deviations are usually attributed to embryonic lethality of the underrepresented genotypes, the evidence is more consistent with genetically-determined preferences for specific combinations of egg and sperm at fertilization that result in genotype bias without embryo loss. This unexpected discovery of genetically-biased fertilization could yield insights about the molecular and cellular interactions between sperm and egg at fertilization, with implications for our understanding of inheritance, reproduction, population genetics, and medical genetics.
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Gorelick R, Carpinone J, Derraugh LJ. No universal differences between female and male eukaryotes: anisogamy and asymmetrical female meiosis. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Root Gorelick
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; 1125 Raven Road Ottawa Ontario K1S 5B6 Canada
- School of Mathematics & Statistics and Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies; Carleton University; 1125 Raven Road Ottawa Ontario K1S 5B6 Canada
| | - Jessica Carpinone
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; 1125 Raven Road Ottawa Ontario K1S 5B6 Canada
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Ducret V, Gaigher A, Simon C, Goudet J, Roulin A. Sex-specific allelic transmission bias suggests sexual conflict at MC1R. Mol Ecol 2016; 25:4551-63. [PMID: 27480981 DOI: 10.1111/mec.13781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Sexual conflict arises when selection in one sex causes the displacement of the other sex from its phenotypic optimum, leading to an inevitable tension within the genome - called intralocus sexual conflict. Although the autosomal melanocortin-1-receptor gene (MC1R) can generate colour variation in sexually dichromatic species, most previous studies have not considered the possibility that MC1R may be subject to sexual conflict. In the barn owl (Tyto alba), the allele MC1RWHITE is associated with whitish plumage coloration, typical of males, and the allele MC1RRUFOUS is associated with dark rufous coloration, typical of females, although each sex can express any phenotype. Because each colour variant is adapted to specific environmental conditions, the allele MC1RWHITE may be more strongly selected in males and the allele MC1RRUFOUS in females. We therefore investigated whether MC1R genotypes are in excess or deficit in male and female fledglings compared with the expected Hardy-Weinberg proportions. Our results show an overall deficit of 7.5% in the proportion of heterozygotes in males and of 12.9% in females. In males, interannual variation in assortative pairing with respect to MC1R explained the year-specific deviations from Hardy-Weinberg proportions, whereas in females, the deficit was better explained by the interannual variation in the probability of inheriting the MC1RWHITE or MC1RRUFOUS allele. Additionally, we observed that sons inherit the MC1RRUFOUS allele from their fathers on average slightly less often than expected under the first Mendelian law. Transmission ratio distortion may be adaptive in this sexually dichromatic species if males and females are, respectively, selected to display white and rufous plumages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Ducret
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland.
| | - Arnaud Gaigher
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Céline Simon
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Jérôme Goudet
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Alexandre Roulin
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore Building, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
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