Dental Disease in Aged Horses and Its Management

Behavioral Signs Associated With Equine Cheek Tooth Findings

Equine dental diseases are often underdiagnosed and their signs inadequately reported. Many horse owners have difficulties in recognizing pain-related behavioral signs and in associating them with dental pain. Our objective was to determine what type and degree of dental findings may cause behavioral signs associated with dental pain. In this cross-sectional study, dental examination was performed on 183 adult horses and cheek tooth findings were scored. Owners filled in an internet-based questionnaire including 35 questions concerning eating behavior, bit behavior, and general behavior of the horse. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analyses were performed. Broadened or darkened fissures [odds ratio (OR) 2.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.04-5.7), complicated fractures (OR 2.3, CI 1.01-5.2) and secondary dentine defects of at least the second degree (OR 3.1, CI 1.2-7.7) were associated with the expression of at least five behavioral signs in the univariable binomial logistic regression analyses. Horses with at least one of these potentially painful cheek tooth findings expressed more signs related to eating behavior, bit behavior, and general behavior than did the other horses. The results suggest that cheek tooth findings indicated by this study as being potentially painful, i.e. broadened or darkened fissures, complicated fractures and secondary dentine defects of at least the second degree, may require intervention, particularly if the horse expresses any behavioral signs that might be related to dental pain.

The Gingiva of Horses With Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction: A Macroscopic Anatomical Evaluation

Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID) is a common neurodegenerative disease mainly in horses older than 15 years. The domestic equine population is following the same demographic change as that seen in humans; it is aging and veterinarians are asked to attend to geriatric horses more frequently. Common problems seen regularly in older equines are dental disorders and especially periodontal disease. As a systemic and endocrine disease, associated with delayed wound healing and impaired immune function, PPID should be considered before major dental treatment in aged equines is started. Possible negative effects of PPID on epithelial tissues could also affect the periodontium. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify gross changes in the gingiva associated with PPID. Fourteen horses with clinical signs of PPID and adenoma in the pituitary pars intermedia and 13 controls showing neither clinical signs nor PPID-associated histological changes in the pituitary gland were included. PPID-affected horses (26.9 ± 0.73 years) were significantly older than controls (20.0 ± 1.24 years). In the PPID-affected group, significantly more often an irregular and bulky appearance of the gingival texture was observed, as well as an irregular shape of the gingival margin. Furthermore, the sulcus gingivalis of cheek teeth frequently was deeper than 1 mm. These findings indicate a possible association between age, soft tissue alterations, and PPID and suggest a potential predisposition of PPID-affected horses for periodontal diseases.

How to Perform a Nutritional Assessment in a First-Line/General Practice

Inappropriate nutrition is a priority welfare challenge. Nutritional mistakes are common and can lead to adverse events, such as poor growth and performance, colic, laminitis, and obesity. A detailed nutritional assessment involving evaluating the equine patient, current diet/ration, and management is essential in creating an effective nutritional plan. Goal(s) should be established and used to inform the plan. Management or resource barriers should be considered. Effective communication and a team-based approach versus an authoritarian one are likely to enhance the success of the nutritional plan. Developing a plan should be an interactive process, adjusting as needed after intentional monitoring.

Nutritional Considerations when Dealing with an Underweight Adult or Senior Horse

Weight loss occurs when the supply of energy is insufficient to meet the energy needs of an individual. The energy supply may be reduced by inadequate provision of feed, inadequate consumption, reduced digestion and absorption, or disruption in metabolic processing. Increased energy expenditure occurs with exercise and during cold temperatures, pregnancy, and lactation. Underlying clinical disease, particularly chronic inflammation, neoplasia, and protein-losing conditions, can cause weight loss or exacerbate existing weight loss. A methodical approach to weight-loss investigation and treatment is necessary, because of the often multifactorial nature of this condition.

High Prevalence of Orodental Disorders in South Brazilian Cart Horses: Walking a Tightrope Between Animal Welfare and Socioeconomic Inevitability

In developing and emerging countries, many people make a living from picking municipal solid waste to sell for reuse or recycling. These people depend on cost-effective transport vehicles like horse-drawn carts. It is indisputable that the general health of these horses not only plays a major economic role but is a welfare issue as well. Orodental disorders are likely to be of particular importance as they directly impair health, performance, and therefore influence animal welfare and income. However, studies investigating prevalence and distribution of orodental disorders in working horses are scarce. This cross-sectional study is a survey of orodental alterations in 70 South Brazilian urban mixed-breed cart horses. All animals were subjected to a standardized clinical and subsequent specific orodental examination, and no horse had previously received dental treatment. Age and gender-related distribution and correlation of type and prevalence of orodental disorders were assessed. Excessively sharp enamel points (98.6%), cheek tooth diastema (65.7%), and mucosal ulcers (65.7%) occurred most frequently. Diastemata were more likely to be present between maxillary and mandibular Triadan 06/07 and mandibular 10/11. Male horses showed a higher individual number of orodental alterations than females (P = .048). Incisors were often worn down and endodontically affected, occurring most frequently in horses >18 years (P = .004) and males (P = .048). Results indicate a high prevalence of orodental changes among South Brazilian cart horses. Poor orodental health in working horses is an animal welfare issue and may be influenced by the socioeconomic status of waste pickers.

Computed Tomography (CT)-Assisted 3D Cephalometry in Horses: Interincisal Angulation of Clinical Crowns

The angle encompassed between opposing incisors in horses is assumed to decline with age. Previous studies merely consider the overall profile view of clinical crowns presuming a generalized angle, neglecting potential tooth position-dependent differences. Cephalometric measurements from 3D computed tomographic thick-slab reconstructions of single incisors within a global reference frame were used to determine clinical crown interincisal angulation (IIA) of 48 horses. Based on predefined dentoalveolar landmarks, IIA was defined as the angle enclosed by the respective labial axis of the clinical crown (LACC). A measurement repeatability analysis was conducted including a comparison of third incisor teeth IIA with data obtained by cephalometric implementation of previously described landmarks for third incisor teeth (lingual/palatal border). The age-related angle course and differences between tooth positions were investigated considering LACCs of permanent incisors. Determining IIA by LACCs exhibited a high level of reproducibility applying for all tooth positions (mean coefficient of variation = 0.65 %; mean SD ± 0.89°). The comparison method for third incisor teeth revealed two times higher mean dispersion of repeated measurements, P = 0.017. A non-linear model slightly increased predictability of angular changes over time as against linearity assumption. The angle decline was more distinctive in younger horses and appears to approach a final value in older ones. Third incisor teeth exhibited significantly higher angle decline compared to first and second incisor teeth, P < 0.0001. According to the results, age determination of horses using clinical crown IIA is not recommended. Rather, 3D cephalometry may provide a promising tool to determine interdental and dentofacial angles of distinct tooth positions in health and disease.

History, clinical findings and outcome of horses with radiographical signs of equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis

The progression of equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis (EOTRH) has not been completely evaluated, and currently, the only effective treatment is extraction of severely affected teeth. We aim to describe how the disease relates to the history and clinical findings and to report on the outcome in individual horses. This case series comprises data collected from 20 horses (age 14–29 years old) with radiographic findings of EOTRH in their incisor and/or canine teeth. Most horses affected with EOTRH in this study were admitted for dental problems, but some for other complaints such as colic. Of the 288 teeth evaluated radiographically, 224 teeth were abnormal. Radiographic findings were most frequently located in the apical aspect and reserve crown of the teeth, and lesions were also commonly found in clinically normal teeth. Histopathology of extracted teeth showed inflammation in the periodontal ligament and revealed that resorption often extended to the dentine. Some owners were unwilling to allow extraction of their horses’ severely affected teeth, even though this treatment has been shown to increase the wellbeing of the horse. As EORTH is a life-long condition, the progression of the disease has to be continuously monitored and the treatments adjusted accordingly.

Nanoparticles in Equine Nutrition: Mechanism of Action and Application as Feed Additives

Several concerns exist regarding horse rearing such as environmental pollution, antibiotics resistance, digestive disorders, mycotoxins contamination of animal feed, gut health management, and improvement of feed efficiency. Nanoparticles have the potential to address these issues and thus could be used as feed additive. Citrate reduces and stabilizes gold nanoparticles, alongside biosynthesized silver nanoparticles have the potential to prolong and improve digestive enzyme activity, which would enhance starch digestibility in the stomach. Zinc oxide and selenium nanoparticles could be used to improve feed digestibility and volatile fatty acids production. Magnesium oxide, silver, and copper nanoparticles exhibit strong antimicrobial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative microbes and weaken the biofilm formation of the microbial community. Calcium, zinc, and silver nanoparticles could be used to prevent periodontal disease in horses. In addition, silver nanoparticles may be applied as antifasciolitics and potentially against other gastrointestinal parasites. Environmental concern of equines could be addressed by using cerium oxide, silver, and cobalt nanoparticles to reduce methane emission and zinc oxide could help to reduce fecal mineral output. Fullerol C₆₀[OH]_24, a honey-derived silver nanoparticle and zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibit attractive antibacterial properties because of increased specific surface area as the reduced particle enhance unit surface reactivity. Gut health management of equines could be solved with nanoparticles because of the ability of ferrous oxide and copper nanoparticles to improve microbial growth, whereas zinc oxide improves villus height, crypt depth, and villous surface area. It is required to explore in depth the beneficial effects of these nanoparticles as a novel area in the equine industry's both in vitro and in vivo before recommendation to equine owners.