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Yeh SC, Diosa-Toro M, Tan WL, Rachenne F, Hain A, Yeo CPX, Bribes I, Xiang BWW, Sathiamoorthy Kannan G, Manuel MC, Missé D, Mok YK, Pompon J. Characterization of dengue virus 3'UTR RNA binding proteins in mosquitoes reveals that AeStaufen reduces subgenomic flaviviral RNA in saliva. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010427. [PMID: 36121894 PMCID: PMC9531803 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue viruses (DENV) are expanding global pathogens that are transmitted through the bite of mosquitoes, mostly Aedes aegypti. As RNA viruses, DENV rely on RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) to complete their life cycle. Alternatively, RBPs can act as restriction factors that prevent DENV multiplication. While the importance of RBPs is well-supported in humans, there is a dearth of information about their influence on DENV transmission by mosquitoes. Such knowledge could be harnessed to design novel, effective interventions against DENV. Here, we successfully adapted RNA-affinity chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry-a technique initially developed in mammalian cells-to identify RBPs in Ae. aegypti cells. We identified fourteen RBPs interacting with DENV serotype 2 3'UTR, which is involved in the viral multiplication and produces subgenomic flaviviral RNA (sfRNA). We validated the RNA affinity results for two RBPs by confirming that AePur binds the 3'UTR, whereas AeStaufen interacts with both 3'UTR and sfRNA. Using in vivo functional evaluation, we determined that RBPs like AeRan, AeExoRNase, and AeRNase have pro-viral functions, whereas AeGTPase, AeAtu, and AePur have anti-viral functions in mosquitoes. Furthermore, we showed that human and mosquito Pur homologs have a shared affinity to DENV2 RNA, although the anti-viral effect is specific to the mosquito protein. Importantly, we revealed that AeStaufen mediates a reduction of gRNA and sfRNA copies in several mosquito tissues, including the salivary glands and that AeStaufen-mediated sfRNA reduction diminishes the concentration of transmission-enhancing sfRNA in saliva, thereby revealing AeStaufen's role in DENV transmission. By characterizing the first RBPs that associate with DENV2 3'UTR in mosquitoes, our study unravels new pro- and anti-viral targets for the design of novel therapeutic interventions as well as provides foundation for studying the role of RBPs in virus-vector interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Chia Yeh
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Mayra Diosa-Toro
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Wei-Lian Tan
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | | | - Arthur Hain
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Celestia Pei Xuan Yeo
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Inès Bribes
- MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Benjamin Wong Wei Xiang
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | | | - Menchie Casayuran Manuel
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Dorothée Missé
- MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Yu Keung Mok
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Julien Pompon
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
- MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France
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2
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Guo H, Chen T, Liang Z, Fan L, Shen Y, Zhou D. iTRAQ and PRM-based comparative proteomic profiling in gills of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei under copper stress. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 263:128270. [PMID: 33297214 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Crustaceans are particularly sensitive to heavy metal pollution. Copper (Cu) is one of typical heavy metal pollutants in aquatic ecosystems. However, limited attention has been paid on the proteomic responses of shrimp under Cu stress. White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei held in 5‰ seawater were exposed to 5 mg L-1 Cu for 3 h, and the regulatory mechanism in the gills was elucidated using iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomics. The results showed that a total of 5034 proteins were identified, 385 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), including 147 differentially up-regulated proteins (DUPs) and 238 differentially down-regulated proteins (DDPs) were found. Bioinformatics analysis indicated the DEPs responding to Cu stress mainly involved in cytoskeleton, immune response, stress response, protein synthesis, detoxification, ion homeostasis and apoptosis. Furthermore, we still performed PRM analysis on sarcoplasmic calcium binding protein (SCP), serine proteinase inhibitor B3 (SPIB3), C-type lectin 4 (CTL4), cathepsin L (CATHL), JHE-like carboxylesterase 1 (CXE1) and paramyosin (PMY), and biochemical analysis on Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-SOD) to validate the iTRAQ results, respectively. The present proteome analysis revealed that Cu stress disrupted the ion homeostasis and protein synthesis, and L.vannamei mainly regulates a series of molecular pathways which contained many key proteins involved in the immune process to protect the organism from Cu stress. Our data provides more insight about the underlying mechanisms that related to the stress response of Cu exposure in crustacean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Guo
- College of Fisheries, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524025, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Tianci Chen
- College of Fisheries, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524025, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Zhi Liang
- College of Fisheries, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524025, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Lanfen Fan
- College of Marine Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yuchun Shen
- College of Fisheries, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524025, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, Zhanjiang, China.
| | - Dayan Zhou
- Aquatic Species Introduction and Breeding Center of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Nanning, 530031, China.
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Wragg D, Techer MA, Canale-Tabet K, Basso B, Bidanel JP, Labarthe E, Bouchez O, Le Conte Y, Clémencet J, Delatte H, Vignal A. Autosomal and Mitochondrial Adaptation Following Admixture: A Case Study on the Honeybees of Reunion Island. Genome Biol Evol 2018; 10:220-238. [PMID: 29202174 PMCID: PMC5814903 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evx247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The honeybee population of the tropical Reunion Island is a genetic admixture of the Apis mellifera unicolor subspecies, originally described in Madagascar, and of European subspecies, mainly A. m. carnica and A. m. ligustica, regularly imported to the island since the late 19th century. We took advantage of this population to study genetic admixing of the tropical-adapted indigenous and temperate-adapted European genetic backgrounds. Whole genome sequencing of 30 workers and 6 males from Reunion, compared with samples from Europe, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rodrigues, and the Seychelles, revealed the Reunion honeybee population to be composed on an average of 53.2 ± 5.9% A. m. unicolor nuclear genomic background, the rest being mainly composed of A. m. carnica and to a lesser extent A. m. ligustica. In striking contrast to this, only 1 out of the 36 honeybees from Reunion had a mitochondrial genome of European origin, suggesting selection has favored the A. m. unicolor mitotype, which is possibly better adapted to the island’s bioclimate. Local ancestry was determined along the chromosomes for all Reunion samples, and a test for preferential selection for the A. m. unicolor or European background revealed 15 regions significantly associated with the A. m. unicolor lineage and 9 regions with the European lineage. Our results provide insights into the long-term consequences of introducing exotic specimen on the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of locally adapted populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wragg
- GenPhySE, Université de Toulouse, INRA, INPT, INP-ENVT, Castanet Tolosan, France.,The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Maéva Angélique Techer
- CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France.,UMR PVBMT, Université de La Réunion, Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France.,Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Kamila Canale-Tabet
- GenPhySE, Université de Toulouse, INRA, INPT, INP-ENVT, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | - Benjamin Basso
- Institut de l'abeille (ITSAP), UMT PrADE, Avignon, France
| | | | - Emmanuelle Labarthe
- GenPhySE, Université de Toulouse, INRA, INPT, INP-ENVT, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | - Olivier Bouchez
- INRA, US 1426, GeT-PlaGe, Genotoul, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Yves Le Conte
- INRA, UR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, UMT PrADE, Avignon, France
| | - Johanna Clémencet
- UMR PVBMT, Université de La Réunion, Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France
| | | | - Alain Vignal
- GenPhySE, Université de Toulouse, INRA, INPT, INP-ENVT, Castanet Tolosan, France
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Swevers L, Liu J, Smagghe G. Defense Mechanisms against Viral Infection in Drosophila: RNAi and Non-RNAi. Viruses 2018; 10:E230. [PMID: 29723993 PMCID: PMC5977223 DOI: 10.3390/v10050230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
RNAi is considered a major antiviral defense mechanism in insects, but its relative importance as compared to other antiviral pathways has not been evaluated comprehensively. Here, it is attempted to give an overview of the antiviral defense mechanisms in Drosophila that involve both RNAi and non-RNAi. While RNAi is considered important in most viral infections, many other pathways can exist that confer antiviral resistance. It is noted that very few direct recognition mechanisms of virus infections have been identified in Drosophila and that the activation of immune pathways may be accomplished indirectly through cell damage incurred by viral replication. In several cases, protection against viral infection can be obtained in RNAi mutants by non-RNAi mechanisms, confirming the variability of the RNAi defense mechanism according to the type of infection and the physiological status of the host. This analysis is aimed at more systematically investigating the relative contribution of RNAi in the antiviral response and more specifically, to ask whether RNAi efficiency is affected when other defense mechanisms predominate. While Drosophila can function as a useful model, this issue may be more critical for economically important insects that are either controlled (agricultural pests and vectors of diseases) or protected from parasite infection (beneficial insects as bees) by RNAi products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Swevers
- Institute of Biosciences & Applications, NCSR "Demokritos", 15341 Athens, Greece.
| | - Jisheng Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou University, 510006 Guangzhou, China.
| | - Guy Smagghe
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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5
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Abstract
The power and ease of Drosophila genetics and the medical relevance of mosquito-transmitted viruses have made dipterans important model organisms in antiviral immunology. Studies of virus-host interactions at the molecular and population levels have illuminated determinants of resistance to virus infection. Here, we review the sources and nature of variation in antiviral immunity and virus susceptibility in model dipteran insects, specifically the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and vector mosquitoes of the genera Aedes and Culex. We first discuss antiviral immune mechanisms and describe the virus-specificity of these responses. In the following sections, we review genetic and microbiota-dependent variation in antiviral immunity. In the final sections, we explore less well-studied sources of variation, including abiotic factors, sexual dimorphism, infection history, and endogenous viral elements. We borrow from work on other pathogen types and non-dipteran species when it parallels or complements studies in dipterans. Understanding natural variation in virus-host interactions may lead to the identification of novel restriction factors and immune mechanisms and shed light on the molecular determinants of vector competence.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H Palmer
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Centre for Infection, Evolution and Immunity, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL UK.
| | - Finny S Varghese
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, P.O. Box 9101, Nijmegen 6500 HB, The Netherlands.
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen 6525 GA, The Netherlands.
| | - Ronald P van Rij
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, P.O. Box 9101, Nijmegen 6500 HB, The Netherlands.
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen 6525 GA, The Netherlands.
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6
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Up-regulated expression of Ran reveals its potential role to deltamethrin stress in Kc cells. Gene 2016; 583:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2016.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Rogers SW, Gahring LC. Upregulation of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor alph4+beta2 through a Ligand-Independent PI3Kbeta Mechanism That Is Enhanced by TNFalpha and the Jak2/p38Mapk Pathways. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143319. [PMID: 26619345 PMCID: PMC4664291 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
High affinity nicotine-binding sites in the mammalian brain are neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) assembled from at least alpha4 and beta2 subunits into pentameric ion channels. When exposed to ligands such as nicotine, these receptors respond by undergoing upregulation, a correlate of nicotine addiction. Upregulation can be measured using HEK293 (293) cells that stably express alpha4 and beta2 subunits using quantification of [3H]epibatidine ([3H]Eb) binding to measure mature receptors. Treatment of these cells with choline also produces upregulation through a hemicholinium3 (HC3)-sensitive (choline kinase) and an HC3-insensitive pathway which are both independent of the mechanism used by nicotine for upregulation. In both cases, upregulation is significantly enhanced by the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) which signals through its receptor Tnfr1 to activate p38Mapk. Here we report that the inhibition of class1 phosphoinositide 3-kinases isoform PI3Kbeta using the selective antagonist PI828 is alone sufficient to produce upregulation and enhance both nicotine and choline HC3-sensitive mediated upregulation. Further, these processes are impacted upon by an AG-490 sensitive Jak2-associated pathway. Both PI3Kbeta (negative) and Jak2 (positive) modulation of upregulation converge through p38Mapk and both overlap with TNFalpha enhancement of this process. Upregulation through the PI3Kbeta pathway did not require Akt. Collectively these findings support upregulation of endogenous alpha4beta2 as a balance among cellular signaling networks that are highly responsive to multiple environmental, inflammatory and metabolic agents. The findings also suggest how illness and metabolic stress could alter the expression of this important nicotinic receptor and novel avenues to intercede in modifying its expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott W Rogers
- Salt Lake City Veteran's Administration Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Salt Lake City, Utah, 84148, United States of America.,Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, 84132, United States of America
| | - Lorise C Gahring
- Salt Lake City Veteran's Administration Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Salt Lake City, Utah, 84148, United States of America.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, 84132, United States of America
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8
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Nainu F, Tanaka Y, Shiratsuchi A, Nakanishi Y. Protection of Insects against Viral Infection by Apoptosis-Dependent Phagocytosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:5696-706. [PMID: 26546607 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether phagocytosis participates in the protection of insects from viral infection using the natural host-virus interaction between Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila C virus (DCV). Drosophila S2 cells were induced to undergo apoptotic cell death upon DCV infection. However, UV-inactivated virus was unable to cause apoptosis, indicating the need for productive infection for apoptosis induction. S2 cells became susceptible to phagocytosis by hemocyte-derived l(2)mbn cells after viral infection, and the presence of phagocytes in S2 cell cultures reduced viral proliferation. Phagocytosis depended, in part, on caspase activity in S2 cells, as well as the engulfment receptors Draper and integrin βν in phagocytes. To validate the in vivo situation, adult flies were abdominally infected with DCV, followed by the analysis of fly death and viral growth. DCV infection killed flies in a dose-responding manner, and the activation of effector caspases was evident, as revealed by the cleavage of a target protein ectopically expressed in flies. Furthermore, hemocytes isolated from infected flies contained DCV-infected cells, and preinjection of latex beads to inhibit the phagocytic activity of hemocytes accelerated fly death after viral infection. Likewise, viral virulence was exaggerated in flies lacking the engulfment receptors, and was accompanied by the augmented proliferation of virus. Finally, phagocytosis of DCV-infected cells in vitro was inhibited by phosphatidylserine-containing liposome, and virus-infected flies died early when a phosphatidylserine-binding protein was ectopically expressed. Collectively, our study demonstrates that the apoptosis-dependent, phosphatidylserine-mediated phagocytosis of virus-infected cells plays an important role in innate immune responses against viral infection in Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firzan Nainu
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan; Faculty of Pharmacy, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, South Sulawesi 90245, Indonesia; and
| | - Yumiko Tanaka
- School of Pharmacy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Akiko Shiratsuchi
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan; School of Pharmacy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Yoshinobu Nakanishi
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan; School of Pharmacy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-1192, Japan
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Pike A, Vadlamani A, Sandiford SL, Gacita A, Dimopoulos G. Characterization of the Rel2-regulated transcriptome and proteome of Anopheles stephensi identifies new anti-Plasmodium factors. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 52:82-93. [PMID: 24998399 PMCID: PMC4143444 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2014.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mosquitoes possess an innate immune system that is capable of limiting infection by a variety of pathogens, including the Plasmodium spp. parasites responsible for human malaria. The Anopheles immune deficiency (IMD) innate immune signaling pathway confers resistance to Plasmodium falciparum. While some previously identified Anopheles anti-Plasmodium effectors are regulated through signaling by Rel2, the transcription factor of the IMD pathway, many components of this defense system remain uncharacterized. To begin to better understand the regulation of immune effector proteins by the IMD pathway, we used oligonucleotide microarrays and iTRAQ to analyze differences in mRNA and protein expression, respectively, between transgenic Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes exhibiting blood meal-inducible overexpression of an active recombinant Rel2 and their wild-type conspecifics. Numerous genes were differentially regulated at both the mRNA and protein levels following induction of Rel2. While multiple immune genes were up-regulated, a majority of the differentially expressed genes have no known immune function in mosquitoes. Selected up-regulated genes from multiple functional categories were tested for both anti-Plasmodium and anti-bacterial action using RNA interference (RNAi). Based on our experimental findings, we conclude that increased expression of the IMD immune pathway-controlled transcription factor Rel2 affects the expression of numerous genes with diverse functions, suggesting a broader physiological impact of immune activation and possible functional versatility of Rel2. Our study has also identified multiple novel genes implicated in anti-Plasmodium defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Pike
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA.
| | - Alekhya Vadlamani
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA.
| | - Simone L Sandiford
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA.
| | - Anthony Gacita
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA.
| | - George Dimopoulos
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology and the Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA.
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