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Bauer PJ, Lee KA, Dugan JA, Cronin-Golomb LM. Longitudinal predictors of self-derivation through memory integration-A mechanism of knowledge accumulation. J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 250:106120. [PMID: 39536655 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2024.106120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 10/04/2024] [Accepted: 10/09/2024] [Indexed: 11/16/2024]
Abstract
Knowledge accumulates through direct instruction and as a consequence of productive memory processes. We report a longitudinal investigation of correlates of the specific productive process of self-derivation through memory integration, targeted because it is a compelling model of accumulation of semantic information. We sampled 148 children aged 8 to 12 years at enrollment. At each of two waves 1 year apart, children were tested on self-derivation through integration and on a battery of potential predictors thereof: cognitive abilities (recall of directly taught facts, verbal comprehension, visualization, visual-auditory learning, and working memory), educational experiences, and family socioeconomic status. Age-related variability was eclipsed by relatively stable individual variability. In both concurrent and longitudinal models, the only significant predictor of self-derivation was recall of directly taught facts. Together with prior research, the results suggest that self-derivation of new knowledge through integration is an individual trait not subsumed by general verbal and spatial skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia J Bauer
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Katherine A Lee
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jessica A Dugan
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Psychological Sciences, Western Oregon University, Monmouth, OR 97361, USA
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Ghasoub M, Perdue M, Long X, Donnici C, Kar P, Gibbard B, Tortorelli C, McMorris C, Dewey D, Lebel C. The brain's structural connectivity and pre-reading abilities in young children with prenatal alcohol exposure. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2024; 70:101467. [PMID: 39486389 PMCID: PMC11564048 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 09/11/2024] [Accepted: 10/22/2024] [Indexed: 11/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Children with prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) may develop a range of neurological and behavioral deficits, including reading and language disorders. Studying the brain's structural connectivity and its relationship to pre-reading/reading skills in young children with PAE can help understand the roots of reading deficits associated with PAE. 363 diffusion MRI scans from 135 children (114 scans from 53 children with PAE) were collected between ages 3-7 years. Children completed NEPSY-II Phonological Processing and Speeded Naming to assess pre-reading skills at each scan. Structural brain network properties were assessed in 16 regions from both hemispheres using graph theory. Linear mixed models were used to account for repeated measures within participants. Children with PAE had significantly lower pre-reading scores than unexposed children, and significantly lower graph theory metrics across bilateral reading networks. Moreover, PAE significantly moderated the associations between Phonological Processing and global efficiency and nodal degree in the bilateral and left hemisphere reading networks, such that children with PAE had stronger associations than unexposed controls. No significant associations were found for Speeded Naming. Our results suggest that brain alterations may underlie early pre-reading difficulties in children with PAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Ghasoub
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Meaghan Perdue
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Departments of Radiology, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Xiangyu Long
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Departments of Radiology, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Claire Donnici
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Preeti Kar
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Ben Gibbard
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Departments of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Canada
| | | | - Carly McMorris
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Departments of Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Deborah Dewey
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Departments of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Canada; Departments of Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Catherine Lebel
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Departments of Radiology, University of Calgary, Canada.
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Isbell E, Rodas De León NE, Richardson DM. Childhood family socioeconomic status is linked to adult brain electrophysiology. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0307406. [PMID: 39163384 PMCID: PMC11335154 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0307406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024] Open
Abstract
A large body of research has linked childhood family socioeconomic status (SES) to neurodevelopment in childhood and adolescence. However, it remains unclear to what extent childhood family SES relates to brain functioning in adulthood. To address this gap, the present study investigated the associations between retrospective accounts of objective and subjective childhood family SES and two well-established electrophysiological indices of brain functioning in adulthood-the MMN and P3b event-related potentials (ERP) components, as neural correlates of automatic change detection and cognitive control respectively. Higher objective childhood family SES, as proxied by parent educational attainment in childhood, was associated with larger (more positive) P3b amplitudes in adulthood. In contrast, there was no association between childhood parent educational attainment and the magnitude of MMN. Adult reports of subjective family SES during childhood were not related to the magnitude of MMN or P3b. These findings suggest that the links between childhood parent educational attainment and brain functioning may extend into adulthood, especially for brain functions supporting cognitive control. These results also imply that, when using retrospective accounts of childhood family SES, objective and subjective reports likely proxy different childhood experiences that have distinct links with specific neurodevelopmental outcomes, and that some of these links may not persist into adulthood. Our findings lay the groundwork for future investigations on how and why childhood family SES relates to brain functioning in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Isbell
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of California Merced, Merced, California, United States of America
| | - Nancy E. Rodas De León
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of California Merced, Merced, California, United States of America
| | - Dylan M. Richardson
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of California Merced, Merced, California, United States of America
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Liu R, Wan Y, Zhu B, Liu Q, Wang H, Jiang Q, Feng Y, Zhu K, Zhao S, Xiang Z, Zhu Y, Song R. Association between urinary BTEX metabolites and dyslexic odds among school-aged children. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:31443-31454. [PMID: 38630400 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33268-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) are ubiquitous in the environment, and all of them can cause neurotoxicity. However, the association between BTEX exposure and dyslexia, a disorder with language network-related regions in left hemisphere affected, remains unclear. We aimed to assess the relationship between BTEX exposure and dyslexic odds among school-aged children. A case-control study, including 355 dyslexics and 390 controls from three cities in China, was conducted. Six BTEX metabolites were measured in their urine samples. Logistic regression model was used to explore the association between the BTEX metabolites and the dyslexic odds. Urinary trans,trans-muconic acid (MU: a metabolite of benzene) was significantly associated with an increased dyslexic odds [odds ratio (OR) = 1.23, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01, 1.50], and the adjusted OR of the dyslexic odds in the third tertile was 1.72 (95% CI: 1.06, 2.77) compared to that in the lowest tertile regarding urinary MU concentration. Furthermore, the association between urinary MU level and the dyslexic odds was more pronounced among children from low-income families based on stratified analyses. Urinary metabolite levels of toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene were not found to be associated with the dyslexic odds. In summary, elevated MU concentrations may be associated with an increased dyslexic odds. We should take measures to reduce MU related exposure among children, particularly those with low family income.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rundong Liu
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Yanjian Wan
- Center for Public Health Laboratory Service, Institute of Environmental Health, Wuhan Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Wuhan, 430024, Hubei, China
| | - Bing Zhu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, 310051, China
| | - Qi Liu
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Haoxue Wang
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Qi Jiang
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Yanan Feng
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Kaiheng Zhu
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Shuai Zhao
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Zhen Xiang
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Ying Zhu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Ranran Song
- Department of Maternal and Child Health and MOE (Ministry of Education) Key Lab of Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China.
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Romeo RR. Considering intersectionality and interacting levels of early intervention on early brain development-a commentary on Nelson et al. (2023). J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2024; 65:456-458. [PMID: 38098314 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2024]
Abstract
It has long been recognized that an individual's experiences can metaphorically 'get under the skin' and become biologically embedded, thus affecting behavior and life outcomes (Hertzman, 2012). While this term is most often used to describe how adverse experiences influence biological process, it is rarely discussed how the same can be said of positive experiences, such as intervention to prevent or treat negative outcomes. In their annual review, Nelson et al. (2023) provide a timely and comprehensive review of how early intervention capitalizes on the neuroplasticity of the postnatal years, turning periods of 'vulnerability' to ones of 'opportunity'. Drawing on decades of expertise, they discuss the neurobiological mechanisms of intervention in two contexts: caregiving interventions for children growing up in disadvantaged environments, and therapeutic interventions for children at elevated risk of neurodevelopmental disorders such as Autism. They thought-provokingly describe both how early intervention operates through mechanisms of neural plasticity and how this can and should inform policy decisions to provide the greatest benefit to children. Here, I aim to underscore the importance of this review by addressing the intersection of these topics; specifically, I muse on how the scientific discovery of biological processes and the ethical imperative to support vulnerable children's development are intimately intertwined, and how this highlights both critical lines of future inquiry as well as policy implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel R Romeo
- University of Maryland College Park, College Park, MD, USA
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Ghasoub M, Perdue M, Long X, Donnici C, Dewey D, Lebel C. Structural neural connectivity correlates with pre-reading abilities in preschool children. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2024; 65:101332. [PMID: 38171053 PMCID: PMC10793080 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Pre-reading abilities are predictive of later reading ability and can be assessed before reading begins. However, the neural correlates of pre-reading abilities in young children are not fully understood. To address this, we examined 246 datasets collected in an accelerated longitudinal design from 81 children aged 2-6 years (age = 4.6 ± 0.98 years, 47 males). Children completed pre-reading assessments (NEPSY-II Phonological Processing and Speeded Naming) and underwent a diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan to assess white matter connectivity. We defined a core neural network of reading and language regions based on prior literature, and structural connections within this network were assessed using graph theory analysis. Linear mixed models accounting for repeated measures were used to test associations between children's pre-reading performance and graph theory measures for the whole bilateral reading network and each hemisphere separately. Phonological Processing scores were positively associated with global efficiency, local efficiency, and clustering coefficient in the bilateral and right hemisphere networks, as well as local efficiency and clustering coefficient in the left hemisphere network. Our findings provide further evidence that structural neural correlates of Phonological Processing emerge in early childhood, before and during early reading instruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Ghasoub
- Cumming School of Medicine, Canada; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Canada
| | - Meaghan Perdue
- Cumming School of Medicine, Canada; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Xiangyu Long
- Cumming School of Medicine, Canada; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, Canada
| | | | - Deborah Dewey
- Cumming School of Medicine, Canada; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Canada; Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Catherine Lebel
- Cumming School of Medicine, Canada; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Canada; Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, Canada.
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7
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McClellan LS, van der Miesen AIR, Tishelman AC, Fischbach AL, Song M, Campos LA, Strang JF. Cognitive and Developmental Profiles Associated with Self-Reported Sexual and Gender Minority Stigmatization Among Binary Transgender Adolescents. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIETY OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY, AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, DIVISION 53 2023:1-17. [PMID: 38118056 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2023.2292045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Sexual and gender minority (SGM) stigmatization is a key factor related to transgender adolescent mental health. While previous research has focused on direct associations between stigmatization and mental health, the present study of transgender youth, equitably recruited across the autism spectrum, examines cognitive and developmental factors in relation to the self-report of experienced and perceived SGM stigmatization. METHOD 65 binary transgender adolescents (43% transfeminine; ages 13-21 years) were intentionally recruited across the spectrum of autism traits from no traits to full criteria autism. Participants completed measures of autism-related social differences, cognitive abilities, and self-reported directly experienced and perceived SGM stigma. Autism-related social differences, cognitive abilities, and age were studied in relation to both SGM stigma factors. RESULTS Autism-related social differences were negatively associated with level of directly experienced SGM stigma but unassociated with perceived stigma. Greater cognitive ability was positively associated with level of perceived SGM stigma, but unassociated with report of directly experienced stigma. Older age was positively associated with level of perceived SGM stigma. There was a statistical trend toward older age positively associated with level of directly experienced stigma. CONCLUSIONS The present study identifies candidate cognitive and developmental influences on self-reported SGM stigmatization among transgender adolescents, evenly recruited across the autism spectrum. The factors which may impact the perception and experience of stigmatization have been notably under-explored in the mental health field. The examination of these individual characteristics may allow for more precise predictive models for research with transgender youth, and ultimately, in clinical care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy S McClellan
- Center for Neuroscience, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital
| | - Anna I R van der Miesen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location Vrije Universiteit
| | | | - Abigail L Fischbach
- Center for Neuroscience, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital
| | - Minneh Song
- Center for Neuroscience, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital
| | - Laura A Campos
- Center for Neuroscience, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital
| | - John F Strang
- Center for Neuroscience, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital
- Departments of Pediatrics, Neurology, and Behavioral Science, George Washington University School of Medicine
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Taylor EK, Abdurokhmonova G, Romeo RR. Socioeconomic Status and Reading Development: Moving from "Deficit" to "Adaptation" in Neurobiological Models of Experience-Dependent Learning. MIND, BRAIN AND EDUCATION : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION SOCIETY 2023; 17:324-333. [PMID: 38148924 PMCID: PMC10750966 DOI: 10.1111/mbe.12351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the strongest predictors of student reading outcomes, and these disparities have persisted for decades. Relatedly, two underlying skills that are required for successful reading-oral language and executive function (EF)-are also the two neurocognitive domains most affected by SES. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on how SES influences the neurobiology of language, EF, and their intersection, including the proximal factors that drive these relationships. We then consider the burgeoning evidence that SES systematically moderates certain brain-behavior relationships for language and EF, underscoring the importance of considering context in investigations of the neurobiological underpinnings of reading development. Finally, we discuss how disparities in reading may be conceptualized as neurobiological adaptations to adversity rather than deficit models. We conclude by suggesting that by harnessing children's stress-adapted relative strengths to support reading development, we may address opportunity gaps both ethically and efficaciously.
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Yeatman JD. Understanding the interplay between executive functions and reading development: A challenge for researchers and practitioners alike. MIND, BRAIN AND EDUCATION : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL MIND, BRAIN, AND EDUCATION SOCIETY 2023; 17:334-337. [PMID: 38585024 PMCID: PMC10997348 DOI: 10.1111/mbe.12384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
In June of 2022, The Dyslexia Foundation (TDF) organized a convening of dyslexia researchers and practitioners around the topic of executive functions. There was consensus on the importance of executive functions for reading development. However, the difficulty of defining, measuring, and training executive functions emerged as a challenge for researchers and practitioners alike. This special issue presents a collection of articles that survey different perspectives, define the current knowledge base, highlight challenges and inconsistencies in research, and chart a path towards a more nuanced understanding of the role of executive functions in reading and dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason D Yeatman
- Graduate School of Education and Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine
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Greenwood P, Hutton J, Dudley J, DiFrancesco M, Farah R, Altaye M, Horowitz-Kraus T. Maternal education as an environmental factor related to reading in children with reading difficulties: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. DYSLEXIA (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2023; 29:217-234. [PMID: 37264693 DOI: 10.1002/dys.1744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The expanded simple view of reading (SVR) model suggests that word decoding, language comprehension and executive functions are necessary for reading comprehension. Children with reading difficulties (RDs) often have deficits in critical components of reading established in the expanded SVR model and alterations in brain function of reading-related regions. Maternal education could provide children with advantageous educational opportunities or resources that support reading acquisition. The primary goal of this study was to examine the contributions of maternal education to the behavioural and neurobiological correlates of the expanded SVR model. Seventy-two 8- to 12-year-old children with RDs and typical readers (TRs) completed reading, behavioural and an functional magnetic resonance imaging stories-listening task to determine the functional connectivity of the receptive language network to the whole brain in association with maternal education. Higher maternal education was associated with better vocabulary in children with RDs and positive functional connectivity between the receptive language network and regions related to visual processing in children with RDs versus TRs. These data suggest that maternal education supports the ability to comprehend oral language and engagement of neural networks that support imagination/visualization in children with RDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige Greenwood
- Reading and Literacy Discovery Center, Pediatric Neuroimaging Research Consortium, Imaging Research Center, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - John Hutton
- Reading and Literacy Discovery Center, Pediatric Neuroimaging Research Consortium, Imaging Research Center, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Jonathan Dudley
- Reading and Literacy Discovery Center, Pediatric Neuroimaging Research Consortium, Imaging Research Center, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Mark DiFrancesco
- Reading and Literacy Discovery Center, Pediatric Neuroimaging Research Consortium, Imaging Research Center, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
- Department of Radiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Rola Farah
- Educational Neuroimaging Group, Faculty of Education in Science and Technology, Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Mekibib Altaye
- Reading and Literacy Discovery Center, Pediatric Neuroimaging Research Consortium, Imaging Research Center, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Tzipi Horowitz-Kraus
- Educational Neuroimaging Group, Faculty of Education in Science and Technology, Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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