Prenylation of Axonally Translated Rac1 Controls NGF-Dependent Axon Growth

Excessive endometrial PlGF- Rac1 signalling underlies endometrial cell stiffness linked to pre-eclampsia

Cell stiffness is regulated by dynamic interaction between ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) and p21 protein-activated kinase 1 (PAK1) proteins, besides other biochemical and molecular regulators. In this study, we investigated how the Placental Growth Factor (PlGF) changes endometrial mechanics by modifying the actin cytoskeleton at the maternal interface. We explored the global effects of PlGF in endometrial stromal cells (EnSCs) using the concerted approach of proteomics, atomic force microscopy (AFM), and electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Proteomic analysis shows PlGF upregulated RhoGTPases activating proteins and extracellular matrix organization-associated proteins in EnSCs. Rac1 and PAK1 transcript levels, activity, and actin polymerization were significantly increased with PlGF treatment. AFM further revealed an increase in cell stiffness with PlGF treatment. The additive effect of PlGF on actin polymerization was suppressed with siRNA-mediated inhibition of Rac1, PAK1, and WAVE2. Interestingly, the increase in cell stiffness by PlGF treatment was pharmacologically reversed with pravastatin, resulting in improved trophoblast cell invasion. Taken together, aberrant PlGF levels in the endometrium can contribute to an altered pre-pregnancy maternal microenvironment and offer a unifying explanation for the pathological changes observed in conditions such as pre-eclampsia (PE).

Implication of Rac1 GTPase in molecular and cellular mitochondrial functions

Rac1 is a member of the Rho GTPase family which plays major roles in cell mobility, polarity and migration, as a fundamental regulator of actin cytoskeleton. Signal transduction by Rac1 occurs through interaction with multiple effector proteins, and its activity is regulated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). The small protein is mainly anchored to the inner side of the plasma membrane but it can be found in endocellular compartments, notably endosomes and cell nuclei. The protein localizes also into mitochondria where it contributes to the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics, including both mitobiogenesis and mitophagy, in addition to signaling processes via different protein partners, such as the proapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and chaperone sigma-1 receptor (σ-1R). The mitochondrial form of Rac1 (mtRac1) has been understudied thus far, but it is as essential as the nuclear or plasma membrane forms, via its implication in regulation of oxidative stress and DNA damages. Rac1 is subject to diverse post-translational modifications, notably to a geranylgeranylation which contributes importantly to its mitochondrial import and its anchorage to mitochondrial membranes. In addition, Rac1 contributes to the mitochondrial translocation of other proteins, such as p53. The mitochondrial localization and functions of Rac1 are discussed here, notably in the context of human diseases such as cancers. Inhibitors of Rac1 have been identified (NSC-23766, EHT-1864) and some are being developed for the treatment of cancer (MBQ-167) or central nervous system diseases (JK-50561). Their effects on mtRac1 warrant further investigations. An overview of mtRac1 is provided here.

Protein lipidation in health and disease: molecular basis, physiological function and pathological implication

Posttranslational modifications increase the complexity and functional diversity of proteins in response to complex external stimuli and internal changes. Among these, protein lipidations which refer to lipid attachment to proteins are prominent, which primarily encompassing five types including S-palmitoylation, N-myristoylation, S-prenylation, glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor and cholesterylation. Lipid attachment to proteins plays an essential role in the regulation of protein trafficking, localisation, stability, conformation, interactions and signal transduction by enhancing hydrophobicity. Accumulating evidence from genetic, structural, and biomedical studies has consistently shown that protein lipidation is pivotal in the regulation of broad physiological functions and is inextricably linked to a variety of diseases. Decades of dedicated research have driven the development of a wide range of drugs targeting protein lipidation, and several agents have been developed and tested in preclinical and clinical studies, some of which, such as asciminib and lonafarnib are FDA-approved for therapeutic use, indicating that targeting protein lipidations represents a promising therapeutic strategy. Here, we comprehensively review the known regulatory enzymes and catalytic mechanisms of various protein lipidation types, outline the impact of protein lipidations on physiology and disease, and highlight potential therapeutic targets and clinical research progress, aiming to provide a comprehensive reference for future protein lipidation research.

Sympathetic NPY controls glucose homeostasis, cold tolerance, and cardiovascular functions in mice

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is best known for its effects in the brain as an orexigenic and anxiolytic agent and in reducing energy expenditure. NPY is also co-expressed with norepinephrine (NE) in sympathetic neurons. Although NPY is generally considered to modulate noradrenergic responses, its specific roles in autonomic physiology remain under-appreciated. Here, we show that sympathetic-derived NPY is essential for metabolic and cardiovascular regulation in mice. NPY and NE are co-expressed in 90% of prevertebral sympathetic neurons and only 43% of paravertebral neurons. NPY-expressing neurons primarily innervate blood vessels in peripheral organs. Sympathetic-specific NPY deletion elicits pronounced metabolic and cardiovascular defects in mice, including reductions in insulin secretion, glucose tolerance, cold tolerance, and pupil size and elevated heart rate, while notably, however, basal blood pressure was unchanged. These findings provide insight into target tissue-specific functions of NPY derived from sympathetic neurons and imply its potential involvement in metabolic and cardiovascular diseases.

Growth factors: Bioactive macromolecular drugs for peripheral nerve injury treatment - Molecular mechanisms and delivery platforms

Bioactive macromolecular drugs known as Growth Factors (GFs), approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), have found successful application in clinical practice. They hold significant promise for addressing peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs). Peripheral nerve guidance conduits (NGCs) loaded with GFs, in the context of tissue engineering, can ensure sustained and efficient release of these bioactive compounds. This, in turn, maintains a stable, long-term, and effective GF concentration essential for treating damaged peripheral nerves. Peripheral nerve regeneration is a complex process that entails the secretion of various GFs. Following PNI, GFs play a pivotal role in promoting nerve cell growth and survival, axon and myelin sheath regeneration, cell differentiation, and angiogenesis. They also regulate the regenerative microenvironment, stimulate plasticity changes post-nerve injury, and, consequently, expedite nerve structure and function repair. Both exogenous and endogenous GFs, including NGF, BDNF, NT-3, GDNF, IGF-1, bFGF, and VEGF, have been successfully loaded onto NGCs using techniques like physical adsorption, blend doping, chemical covalent binding, and engineered transfection. These approaches have effectively promoted the repair of peripheral nerves. Numerous studies have demonstrated similar tissue functional therapeutic outcomes compared to autologous nerve transplantation. This evidence underscores the substantial clinical application potential of GFs in the domain of peripheral nerve repair. In this article, we provide an overview of GFs in the context of peripheral nerve regeneration and drug delivery systems utilizing NGCs. Looking ahead, commercial materials for peripheral nerve repair hold the potential to facilitate the effective regeneration of damaged peripheral nerves and maintain the functionality of distant target organs through the sustained release of GFs.

Lipidation states orchestrate CLICK-III/CaMKIγ's stepwise association with Golgi and rafts-enriched membranes and specify its functional coupling to STEF-Rac1-dependent neurite extension

CLICK-III/CaMKIγ is a lipid-anchored neuronal isoform of multifunctional Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, which mediates BDNF-dependent dendritogenesis in cultured cortical neurons. We found that two distinct lipidation states of CaMKIγ, namely, prenylation and palmitoylation, controlled its association with detergent-resistant microdomains in the dendrites and were essential for its dendritogenic activity. However, the impact of each lipid modification on membrane targeting/trafficking and how it specifies functional coupling leading to polarized changes in neuronal morphology are not clear. Here, we show that prenylation induces membrane anchoring of CaMKIγ, permitting access to the Golgi apparatus, and a subsequent palmitoylation facilitates association with cholesterol-enriched lipid microdomains or lipid rafts, in particular at the Golgi. To specifically test the role of palmitoylated CaMKγ in neurite extension, we identified and took advantage of a cell system, PC12, which, unlike neurons, conveniently lacked CaMKIγ and was deficient in the activity-dependent release of a neuritogenic growth factor while possessing the ability to activate polarized rafts signaling for morphogenesis. This system allowed us to rigorously demonstrate that an activity-dependent, lipid rafts-restricted Rac activation leading to neuritogenesis could be functionally rescued by dually lipidated CaMKIγ expression, revealing that not only prenylation but also palmitoylation is essential for CaMKIγ to activate a compartmentalized STEF-Rac1 pathway. These results shed light on the significance of recruiting prenylated and palmitoylated CaMKIγ into the coalescing signalosomes at lipid rafts together with Rac1 and its specific GEF and STEF and forming a compartmentalized Ca2+ signaling pathway that underlies activity-dependent neuritogenesis and morphogenesis during axodendritic polarization critical for brain development and circuitogenesis.

Sympathetic NPY controls glucose homeostasis, cold tolerance, and cardiovascular functions in mice

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is best known for its effects in the brain as an orexigenic and anxiolytic agent and in reducing energy expenditure. NPY is also co-expressed with Norepinephrine (NE) in sympathetic neurons. Although NPY is generally considered to modulate noradrenergic responses, its specific roles in autonomic physiology remain under-appreciated. Here, we show that sympathetic-derived NPY is essential for metabolic and cardiovascular regulation in mice. NPY and NE are co-expressed in 90% of prevertebral sympathetic neurons and only 43% of paravertebral neurons. NPY-expressing neurons primarily innervate blood vessels in peripheral organs. Sympathetic-specific deletion of NPY elicits pronounced metabolic and cardiovascular defects in mice, including reductions in insulin secretion, glucose tolerance, cold tolerance, pupil size, and an elevation in heart rate, while notably, however, basal blood pressure was unchanged. These findings provide new knowledge about target tissue-specific functions of NPY derived from sympathetic neurons and imply its potential involvement in metabolic and cardiovascular diseases.

Senescent immune cells accumulation promotes brown adipose tissue dysfunction during aging

Brown adipose tissue (BAT)-mediated thermogenesis declines with age. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here we reveal that bone marrow-derived pro-inflammatory and senescent S100A8⁺ immune cells, mainly T cells and neutrophils, invade the BAT of male rats and mice during aging. These S100A8⁺ immune cells, coupled with adipocytes and sympathetic nerves, compromise axonal networks. Mechanistically, these senescent immune cells secrete abundant S100A8 to inhibit adipose RNA-binding motif protein 3 expression. This downregulation results in the dysregulation of axon guidance-related genes, leading to impaired sympathetic innervation and thermogenic function. Xenotransplantation experiments show that human S100A8⁺ immune cells infiltrate mice BAT and are sufficient to induce aging-like BAT dysfunction. Notably, treatment with S100A8 inhibitor paquinimod rejuvenates BAT axon networks and thermogenic function in aged male mice. Our study suggests that targeting the bone marrow-derived senescent immune cells presents an avenue to improve BAT aging and related metabolic disorders.

mRNA Localization and Local Translation of the Microtubule Severing Enzyme, Fidgetin-Like 2, in Polarization, Migration and Outgrowth

Cell motility requires strict spatiotemporal control of protein expression. During cell migration, mRNA localization and local translation in subcellular areas like the leading edge and protrusions are particularly advantageous for regulating the reorganization of the cytoskeleton. Fidgetin-Like 2 (FL2), a microtubule severing enzyme (MSE) that restricts migration and outgrowth, localizes to the leading edge of protrusions where it severs dynamic microtubules. FL2 is primarily expressed during development but in adulthood, is spatially upregulated at the leading edge minutes after injury. Here, we show mRNA localization and local translation in protrusions of polarized cells are responsible for FL2 leading edge expression after injury. The data suggests that the RNA binding protein IMP1 is involved in the translational regulation and stabilization of FL2 mRNA, in competition with the miRNA let-7. These data exemplify the role of local translation in microtubule network reorganization during migration and elucidate an unexplored MSE protein localization mechanism.

Transcytosis-mediated anterograde transport of TrkA receptors is necessary for sympathetic neuron development and function

In neurons, many membrane proteins, synthesized in cell bodies, must be efficiently delivered to axons to influence neuronal connectivity, synaptic communication, and repair. Previously, we found that axonal targeting of TrkA neurotrophin receptors in sympathetic neurons occurs via an atypical transport mechanism called transcytosis, which relies on TrkA interactions with PTP1B, a protein tyrosine phosphatase. Here, we generated TrkAR685A mice, where TrkA receptor signaling is preserved, but its PTP1B-dependent transcytosis is disrupted to show that this mode of axonal transport is essential for sympathetic neuron development and autonomic function. TrkAR685A mice have decreased axonal TrkA levels in vivo, loss of sympathetic neurons, and reduced innervation of targets. The neuron loss and diminished target innervation phenotypes are specifically restricted to the developmental period when sympathetic neurons are known to rely on the TrkA ligand, nerve growth factor, for trophic support. Postnatal TrkAR685A mice exhibit reduced pupil size and eyelid ptosis, indicative of sympathetic dysfunction. Furthermore, we also observed a significant loss of TrkA-expressing nociceptive neurons in the dorsal root ganglia during development in TrkAR685A mice, suggesting that transcytosis might be a general mechanism for axonal targeting of TrkA receptors. Together, these findings establish the necessity of transcytosis in supplying TrkA receptors to axons, specifically during development, and highlight the physiological relevance of this axon targeting mechanism in the nervous system.

Quantitative proteomics identified circulating biomarkers in lung adenocarcinoma diagnosis

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer (LC) is a common malignant tumor with a high incidence and poor prognosis. Early LC could be cured, but the 5-year-survival rate for patients advanced is extremely low. Early screening of tumor biomarkers through plasma could allow more LC to be detected at an early stage, leading to a earlier treatment and a better prognosis.

METHODS

This study was based on total proteomic analysis and parallel reaction monitoring validation of peripheral blood from 20 lung adenocarcinoma patients and 20 healthy individuals. Furthermore, differentially expressed proteins closely related to prognosis were analysed using Kaplan-Meier Plotter and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) curve analysis.

RESULTS

The candidate proteins GAPDH and RAC1 showed the highest connectivity with other differentially expressed proteins between the lung adenocarcinoma group and the healthy group using STRING. Kaplan-Meier Plotter analysis showed that lung adenocarcinoma patients with positive ATCR2, FHL1, RAB27B, and RAP1B expression had observably longer overall survival than patients with negative expression (P < 0.05). The high expression of ARPC2, PFKP, PNP, RAC1 was observably negatively correlated with prognosis (P < 0.05). 17 out of 27 proteins showed a high area under the curve (> 0.80) between the lung adenocarcinoma and healthy plasma groups. Among those proteins, UQCRC1 had an area under the curve of 0.960, and 5 proteins had an area under the curve from 0.90 to 0.95, suggesting that these hub proteins might have discriminatory potential in lung adenocarcinoma, P < 0.05.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide UQCRC1, GAPDH, RAC1, PFKP have potential as novel biomarkers for the early screening of lung adenocarcinoma.

Satellite glia modulate sympathetic neuron survival, activity, and autonomic function

Satellite glia are the major glial cells in sympathetic ganglia, enveloping neuronal cell bodies. Despite this intimate association, the extent to which sympathetic functions are influenced by satellite glia in vivo remains unclear. Here, we show that satellite glia are critical for metabolism, survival, and activity of sympathetic neurons and modulate autonomic behaviors in mice. Adult ablation of satellite glia results in impaired mTOR signaling, soma atrophy, reduced noradrenergic enzymes, and loss of sympathetic neurons. However, persisting neurons have elevated activity, and satellite glia-ablated mice show increased pupil dilation and heart rate, indicative of enhanced sympathetic tone. Satellite glia-specific deletion of Kir4.1, an inward-rectifying potassium channel, largely recapitulates the cellular defects observed in glia-ablated mice, suggesting that satellite glia act in part via K⁺-dependent mechanisms. These findings highlight neuron–satellite glia as functional units in regulating sympathetic output, with implications for disorders linked to sympathetic hyper-activity such as cardiovascular disease and hypertension.

Cholesterol synthesis inhibition or depletion in axon regeneration

Cholesterol is biosynthesized by all animal cells. Beyond its metabolic role in steroidogenesis, it is enriched in the plasma membrane where it has key structural and regulatory functions. Cholesterol is thus presumably important for post-injury axon regrowth, and this notion is supported by studies showing that impairment of local cholesterol reutilization impeded regeneration. However, several studies have also shown that statins, inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, are enhancers of axon regeneration, presumably acting through an attenuation of the mevalonate isoprenoid pathway and consequent reduction in protein prenylation. Several recent reports have now shown that cholesterol depletion, as well as inhibition of cholesterol synthesis per se, enhances axon regeneration. Here, I discussed these findings and propose some possible underlying mechanisms. The latter would include possible disruptions to axon growth inhibitor signaling by lipid raft-localized receptors, as well as other yet unclear neuronal survival signaling process enhanced by cholesterol lowering or depletion.

The sympathetic nervous system in development and disease

The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses and maintains homeostasis during daily activities such as exercise, eating a meal or regulation of body temperature. Sympathetic regulation of bodily functions requires the establishment and refinement of anatomically and functionally precise connections between postganglionic sympathetic neurons and peripheral organs distributed widely throughout the body. Mechanistic studies of key events in the formation of postganglionic sympathetic neurons during embryonic and early postnatal life, including axon growth, target innervation, neuron survival, and dendrite growth and synapse formation, have advanced the understanding of how neuronal development is shaped by interactions with peripheral tissues and organs. Recent progress has also been made in identifying how the cellular and molecular diversity of sympathetic neurons is established to meet the functional demands of peripheral organs. In this Review, we summarize current knowledge of signalling pathways underlying the development of the sympathetic nervous system. These findings have implications for unravelling the contribution of sympathetic dysfunction stemming, in part, from developmental perturbations to the pathophysiology of peripheral neuropathies and cardiovascular and metabolic disorders.

A Not-So-Ancient Grease History: Click Chemistry and Protein Lipid Modifications

Protein lipid modification involves the attachment of hydrophobic groups to proteins via ester, thioester, amide, or thioether linkages. In this review, the specific click chemical reactions that have been employed to study protein lipid modification and their use for specific labeling applications are first described. This is followed by an introduction to the different types of protein lipid modifications that occur in biology. Next, the roles of click chemistry in elucidating specific biological features including the identification of lipid-modified proteins, studies of their regulation, and their role in diseases are presented. A description of the use of protein-lipid modifying enzymes for specific labeling applications including protein immobilization, fluorescent labeling, nanostructure assembly, and the construction of protein-drug conjugates is presented next. Concluding remarks and future directions are presented in the final section.

Selective axonal translation of the mRNA isoform encoding prenylated Cdc42 supports axon growth

The small Rho-family GTPase Cdc42 has long been known to have a role in cell motility and axon growth. The eukaryotic Ccd42 gene is alternatively spliced to generate mRNAs with two different 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) that encode proteins with distinct C-termini. The C-termini of these Cdc42 proteins include CaaX and CCaX motifs for post-translational prenylation and palmitoylation, respectively. Palmitoyl-Cdc42 protein was previously shown to contribute to dendrite maturation, while the prenyl-Cdc42 protein contributes to axon specification and its mRNA was detected in neurites. Here, we show that the mRNA encoding prenyl-Cdc42 isoform preferentially localizes into PNS axons and this localization selectively increases in vivo during peripheral nervous system (PNS) axon regeneration. Functional studies indicate that prenyl-Cdc42 increases axon length in a manner that requires axonal targeting of its mRNA, which, in turn, needs an intact C-terminal CaaX motif that can drive prenylation of the encoded protein. In contrast, palmitoyl-Cdc42 has no effect on axon growth but selectively increases dendrite length. Together, these data show that alternative splicing of the Cdc42 gene product generates an axon growth promoting, locally synthesized prenyl-Cdc42 protein. This article has an associated First Person interview with one of the co-first authors of the paper.