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Wang J, Dai L, Chen S, Zhang Z, Fang X, Zhang Z. Protein-protein interactions regulating α-synuclein pathology. Trends Neurosci 2024; 47:209-226. [PMID: 38355325 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2024.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and the formation of Lewy bodies (LBs). The main proteinaceous component of LBs is aggregated α-synuclein (α-syn). However, the mechanisms underlying α-syn aggregation are not yet fully understood. Converging lines of evidence indicate that, under certain pathological conditions, various proteins can interact with α-syn and regulate its aggregation. Understanding these protein-protein interactions is crucial for unraveling the molecular mechanisms contributing to PD pathogenesis. In this review we provide an overview of the current knowledge on protein-protein interactions that regulate α-syn aggregation. Additionally, we briefly summarize the methods used to investigate the influence of protein-protein interactions on α-syn aggregation and propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiannan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Lijun Dai
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Sichun Chen
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Zhaohui Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Xin Fang
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Zhentao Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China; TaiKang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430000, China.
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Giusti V, Kaur G, Giusto E, Civiero L. Brain clearance of protein aggregates: a close-up on astrocytes. Mol Neurodegener 2024; 19:5. [PMID: 38229094 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-024-00703-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Protein misfolding and accumulation defines a prevailing feature of many neurodegenerative disorders, finally resulting in the formation of toxic intra- and extracellular aggregates. Intracellular aggregates can enter the extracellular space and be subsequently transferred among different cell types, thus spreading between connected brain districts.Although microglia perform a predominant role in the removal of extracellular aggregated proteins, mounting evidence suggests that astrocytes actively contribute to the clearing process. However, the molecular mechanisms used by astrocytes to remove misfolded proteins are still largely unknown.Here we first provide a brief overview of the progressive transition from soluble monomers to insoluble fibrils that characterizes amyloid proteins, referring to α-Synuclein and Tau as archetypical examples. We then highlight the mechanisms at the basis of astrocyte-mediated clearance with a focus on their potential ability to recognize, collect, internalize and digest extracellular protein aggregates. Finally, we explore the potential of targeting astrocyte-mediated clearance as a future therapeutic approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by protein misfolding and accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gurkirat Kaur
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Laura Civiero
- IRCCS San Camillo Hospital, Venice, Italy.
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.
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Torre-Muruzabal T, Van der Perren A, Coens A, Gelders G, Janer AB, Camacho-Garcia S, Klingstedt T, Nilsson P, Stefanova N, Melki R, Baekelandt V, Peelaerts W. Host oligodendrogliopathy and α-synuclein strains dictate disease severity in multiple system atrophy. Brain 2023; 146:237-251. [PMID: 35170728 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awac061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple system atrophy is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with prominent autonomic and motor features. During early stages, different subtypes of the disease are distinguished by their predominant parkinsonian or cerebellar symptoms, reflecting its heterogeneous nature. The pathognomonic feature of multiple system atrophy is the presence of α-synuclein (αSyn) protein deposits in oligodendroglial cells. αSyn can assemble in specific cellular or disease environments and form αSyn strains with unique structural features, but the ability of αSyn strains to propagate in oligodendrocytes remains elusive. Recently, it was shown that αSyn strains with related conformations exist in the brains of patients. Here, we investigated whether different αSyn strains can influence multiple system atrophy progression in a strain-dependent manner. To this aim, we injected two recombinant αSyn strains (fibrils and ribbons) in multiple system atrophy transgenic mice and found that they determined disease severity in multiple system atrophy via host-restricted and cell-specific pathology in vivo. αSyn strains significantly impact disease progression in a strain-dependent way via oligodendroglial, neurotoxic and immune-related mechanisms. Neurodegeneration and brain atrophy were accompanied by unique microglial and astroglial responses and the recruitment of central and peripheral immune cells. The differential activation of microglial cells correlated with the structural features of αSyn strains both in vitro and in vivo. Spectral analysis showed that ribbons propagated oligodendroglial inclusions that were structurally distinct from those of fibrils, with resemblance to oligodendroglial inclusions, in the brains of patients with multiple system atrophy. This study, therefore, shows that the multiple system atrophy phenotype is governed by both the nature of the αSyn strain and the host environment and that by injecting αSyn strains into an animal model of the disease, a more comprehensive phenotype can be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Torre-Muruzabal
- KU Leuven, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anke Van der Perren
- KU Leuven, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Audrey Coens
- Institut François Jacob (MIRCen), CEA, and Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Géraldine Gelders
- KU Leuven, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anna Barber Janer
- KU Leuven, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sara Camacho-Garcia
- KU Leuven, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Therése Klingstedt
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Peter Nilsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Nadia Stefanova
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ronald Melki
- Institut François Jacob (MIRCen), CEA, and Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- KU Leuven, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wouter Peelaerts
- KU Leuven, Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
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Ozoran H, Srinivasan R. Astrocytes and Alpha-Synuclein: Friend or Foe? JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2023; 13:1289-1301. [PMID: 38007674 PMCID: PMC10741342 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-230284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/27/2023]
Abstract
Despite its devastating disease burden and alarming prevalence, the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) remains to be completely elucidated. PD is characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and this correlates with the accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein. While the aggregation of α-synuclein in the form of Lewy bodies or Lewy neurites is a well-established intraneuronal hallmark of the disease process, our understanding of the glial contribution to aberrant α-synuclein proteostasis is lacking. In this regard, restoring astrocyte function during early PD could offer a promising therapeutic avenue and understanding the involvement of astrocytes in handling/mishandling of α-synuclein is of particular interest. Here, we explore the growing body of scientific literature implicating aberrant astrocytic α-synuclein proteostasis with the seemingly inexorable pathological sequelae typifying PD. We also provide a perspective on how heterogeneity in the morphological relationship between astrocytes and neurons will need to be considered in the context of PD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakan Ozoran
- Clinical Medical School, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Rahul Srinivasan
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Texas A&M University School of Medicine, Bryan, TX, USA
- Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), College Station, TX, USA
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The expression level of alpha-synuclein in different neuronal populations is the primary determinant of its prion-like seeding. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4895. [PMID: 32184415 PMCID: PMC7078319 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-61757-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (aSyn)-rich aggregates propagate in neuronal networks and compromise cellular homeostasis leading to synucleinopathies such as Parkinson's disease. Aggregated aSyn spread follows a conserved spatio-temporal pattern that is not solely dependent on connectivity. Hence, the differential tropism of aSyn-rich aggregates to distinct brain regions, or their ability to amplify within those regions, must contribute to this process. To better understand what underlies aSyn-rich aggregates distribution within the brain, we generated primary neuronal cultures from various brain regions of wild-type mice and mice expressing a reduced level of aSyn, and exposed them to fibrillar aSyn. We then assessed exogenous fibrillar aSyn uptake, endogenous aSyn seeding, and endogenous aSyn physiological expression levels. Despite a similar uptake of exogenous fibrils by neuronal cells from distinct brain regions, the seeded aggregation of endogenous aSyn differed greatly from one neuronal population to another. The different susceptibility of neuronal populations was linked to their aSyn expression level. Our data establish that endogenous aSyn expression level plays a key role in fibrillar aSyn prion-like seeding, supporting that endogenous aSyn expression level participates in selective regional brain vulnerability.
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Sorrentino ZA, Giasson BI, Chakrabarty P. α-Synuclein and astrocytes: tracing the pathways from homeostasis to neurodegeneration in Lewy body disease. Acta Neuropathol 2019; 138:1-21. [PMID: 30798354 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-019-01977-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
α-Synuclein is a soluble protein that is present in abundance in the brain, though its normal function in the healthy brain is poorly defined. Intraneuronal inclusions of α-synuclein, commonly referred to as Lewy pathology, are pathological hallmarks of a spectrum of neurodegenerative disorders referred to as α-synucleinopathies. Though α-synuclein is expressed predominantly in neurons, α-synuclein aggregates in astrocytes are a common feature in these neurodegenerative diseases. How and why α-synuclein ends up in the astrocytes and the consequences of this dysfunctional proteostasis in immune cells is a major area of research that can have far-reaching implications for future immunobiotherapies in α-synucleinopathies. Accumulation of aggregated α-synuclein can disrupt astrocyte function in general and, more importantly, can contribute to neurodegeneration in α-synucleinopathies through various pathways. Here, we summarize our current knowledge on how astrocytic α-synucleinopathy affects CNS function in health and disease and propose a model of neuroglial connectome altered by α-synuclein proteostasis that might be amenable to immune-based therapies.
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Shrivastava AN, Triller A, Melki R. Cell biology and dynamics of Neuronal Na +/K +-ATPase in health and diseases. Neuropharmacology 2018; 169:107461. [PMID: 30550795 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Revised: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/08/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal Na+/K+-ATPase is responsible for the maintenance of ionic gradient across plasma membrane. In doing so, in a healthy brain, Na+/K+-ATPase activity accounts for nearly half of total brain energy consumption. The α3-subunit containing Na+/K+-ATPase expression is restricted to neurons. Heterozygous mutations within α3-subunit leads to Rapid-onset Dystonia Parkinsonism, Alternating Hemiplegia of Childhood and other neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. Additionally, proteins such as α-synuclein, amyloid-β, tau and SOD1 whose aggregation is associated to neurodegenerative diseases directly bind and impair α3-Na+/K+-ATPase activity. The review will provide a summary of neuronal α3-Na+/K+-ATPase functional properties, expression pattern, protein-protein interactions at the plasma membrane, biophysical properties (distribution and lateral diffusion). Lastly, the role of α3-Na+/K+-ATPase in neurological and neurodegenerative disorders will be discussed. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'Mobility and trafficking of neuronal membrane proteins'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amulya Nidhi Shrivastava
- CEA, Institut François Jacob (MIRcen) and CNRS, Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases (U9199), 18 Route du Panorama, 92265, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.
| | - Antoine Triller
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, INSERM, CNRS, PSL, Research University, 46 Rue d'Ulm, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Ronald Melki
- CEA, Institut François Jacob (MIRcen) and CNRS, Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases (U9199), 18 Route du Panorama, 92265, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
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Zhu J, Hu Z, Han X, Wang D, Jiang Q, Ding J, Xiao M, Wang C, Lu M, Hu G. Dopamine D2 receptor restricts astrocytic NLRP3 inflammasome activation via enhancing the interaction of β-arrestin2 and NLRP3. Cell Death Differ 2018; 25:2037-2049. [PMID: 29786071 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-018-0127-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are involved in the neuroinflammation of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Among the numerous inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1β (IL-1β) produced by astrocytic Nod-like receptor protein (NLRP) inflammasome is crucial in the pathogenesis of PD. β-arrestin2-mediated dopamine D2 receptor (Drd2) signal transduction has been regarded as a potential anti-inflammatory target. Our previous study revealed that astrocytic Drd2 suppresses neuroinflammation in the central nervous system. However, the role of Drd2 in astrocytic NLRP3 inflammasome activation and subsequent IL-1β production remains unclear. In the present study, we used 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced PD mouse model to investigate whether Drd2 could suppress astrocytic NLRP3 inflammasome activation. We showed that Drd2 agonist inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation, evidenced by decreased caspase-1 expression and reduced IL-1β release in the midbrain of wild type mice. The anti-inflammasome effect of Drd2 was abolished in β-arrestin2 knockout and β-arrestin2 small interfering RNA-injected mice, suggesting a critical role of β-arrestin2 in Drd2-regulated NLRP3 inflammasome activation. We also found that Drd2 agonists suppressed the upregulation of caspase-1 and IL-1β expression in primary cultured mouse astrocytes in response to the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome induced by lipopolysaccharide plus adenosine triphosphate. Furthermore, we demonstrated that β-arrestin2 mediated the inhibitory effect of Drd2 on NLRP3 inflammasome activation via interacting with NLRP3 and interfering the inflammasome assembly. Collectively, our study illustrates that astrocytic Drd2 inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation through a β-arrestin2-dependent mechanism, and provides a new strategy for treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialei Zhu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China
| | - Zhaoli Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China
| | - Xiaojuan Han
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, China
| | - Dongshuo Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, China
| | - Qingling Jiang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China
| | - Jianhua Ding
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China
| | - Ming Xiao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China
| | - Cong Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China
| | - Ming Lu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China.
| | - Gang Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 211166, China. .,Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, China.
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Cavaliere F, Cerf L, Dehay B, Ramos-Gonzalez P, De Giorgi F, Bourdenx M, Bessede A, Obeso JA, Matute C, Ichas F, Bezard E. In vitro α-synuclein neurotoxicity and spreading among neurons and astrocytes using Lewy body extracts from Parkinson disease brains. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 103:101-112. [PMID: 28411117 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Synucleinopathies are a group of diseases characterized by the presence of intracellular protein aggregates containing α-synuclein (α-syn). While α-syn aggregates have been shown to induce multimodal cellular dysfunctions, uptake and transport mechanisms remain unclear. Using high-content imaging on cortical neurons and astrocytes, we here define the kinetics of neuronal and astrocytic abnormalities induced by human-derived α-syn aggregates grounding the use of such system to identify and test putative therapeutic compounds. We then aimed at characterizing uptake and transport mechanisms using primary cultures of cortical neurons and astrocytes either in single well or in microfluidic chambers allowing connection between cells and cell-types. We report that astrocytes take up α-syn-aggregates far more efficiently than neurons through an endocytic event. We also highlight that active α-syn transport occurs between cells and any cell-types. Of special interest regarding the disease, we also show that uptake and spreading of α-syn from astrocytes to neurons can lead to neuronal death. Altogether, we here show that patients-derived α-synuclein aggregates, which are taken up by neurons and astrocytes, induce a differential endogenous response in the two cell types including a peculiar astrocytic toxic gain-of-function that leads to neuronal death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Cavaliere
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), S-48940 Leioa, Spain
| | | | - Benjamin Dehay
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Paula Ramos-Gonzalez
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), S-48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Francesca De Giorgi
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; INSERM U1084 Laboratoire de Neurosciences Experimentales et Cliniques, F-86000 Poitiers, France
| | - Mathieu Bourdenx
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Jose A Obeso
- HM Centro Integral de Neurociencias A.C. (CINAC), HM Puerta del Sur and CIBERNED and CEU-San Pablo University Madrid, E-28938 Mostoles, Spain
| | - Carlos Matute
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), S-48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - François Ichas
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; INSERM U1084 Laboratoire de Neurosciences Experimentales et Cliniques, F-86000 Poitiers, France
| | - Erwan Bezard
- Univ. de Bordeaux, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; CNRS, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, UMR 5293, F-33000 Bordeaux, France; Motac Neuroscience, UK-M15 6WE Manchester, UK.
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