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Batenburg NL, Walker JR, Zhu XD. CSB Regulates Pathway Choice in Response to DNA Replication Stress Induced by Camptothecin. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12419. [PMID: 37569794 PMCID: PMC10418903 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Topoisomerase inhibitor camptothecin (CPT) induces fork stalling and is highly toxic to proliferating cells. However, how cells respond to CPT-induced fork stalling has not been fully characterized. Here, we report that Cockayne syndrome group B (CSB) protein inhibits PRIMPOL-dependent fork repriming in response to a low dose of CPT. At a high concentration of CPT, CSB is required to promote the restart of DNA replication through MUS81-RAD52-POLD3-dependent break-induced replication (BIR). In the absence of CSB, resumption of DNA synthesis at a high concentration of CPT can occur through POLQ-LIG3-, LIG4-, or PRIMPOL-dependent pathways, which are inhibited, respectively, by RAD51, BRCA1, and BRCA2 proteins. POLQ and LIG3 are core components of alternative end joining (Alt-EJ), whereas LIG4 is a core component of nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ). These results suggest that CSB regulates fork restart pathway choice following high-dosage CPT-induced fork stalling, promoting BIR but inhibiting Alt-EJ, NHEJ, and fork repriming. We find that loss of CSB and BRCA2 is a toxic combination to genomic stability and cell survival at a high concentration of CPT, which is likely due to accumulation of ssDNA gaps, underscoring an important role of CSB in regulating the therapy response in cancers lacking functional BRCA2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xu-Dong Zhu
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; (N.L.B.); (J.R.W.)
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2
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Role of Cockayne Syndrome Group B Protein in Replication Stress: Implications for Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810212. [PMID: 36142121 PMCID: PMC9499456 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of endogenous and exogenous insults are capable of impeding replication fork progression, leading to replication stress. Several SNF2 fork remodelers have been shown to play critical roles in resolving this replication stress, utilizing different pathways dependent upon the nature of the DNA lesion, location on the DNA, and the stage of the cell cycle, to complete DNA replication in a manner preserving genetic integrity. Under certain conditions, however, the attempted repair may lead to additional genetic instability. Cockayne syndrome group B (CSB) protein, a SNF2 chromatin remodeler best known for its role in transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair, has recently been shown to catalyze fork reversal, a pathway that can provide stability of stalled forks and allow resumption of DNA synthesis without chromosome breakage. Prolonged stalling of replication forks may collapse to give rise to DNA double-strand breaks, which are preferentially repaired by homology-directed recombination. CSB plays a role in repairing collapsed forks by promoting break-induced replication in S phase and early mitosis. In this review, we discuss roles of CSB in regulating the sources of replication stress, replication stress response, as well as the implications of CSB for cancer therapy.
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3
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Lei T, Du S, Peng Z, Chen L. Multifaceted regulation and functions of 53BP1 in NHEJ‑mediated DSB repair (Review). Int J Mol Med 2022; 50:90. [PMID: 35583003 PMCID: PMC9162042 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2022.5145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is crucial for the preservation of genomic integrity and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Non-homologous DNA end joining (NHEJ) is the predominant repair mechanism for any type of DNA DSB during the majority of the cell cycle. NHEJ defects regulate tumor sensitivity to ionizing radiation and anti-neoplastic agents, resulting in immunodeficiencies and developmental abnormalities in malignant cells. p53-binding protein 1 (53BP1) is a key mediator involved in DSB repair, which functions to maintain a balance in the repair pathway choices and in preserving genomic stability. 53BP1 promotes DSB repair via NHEJ and antagonizes DNA end overhang resection. At present, novel lines of evidence have revealed the molecular mechanisms underlying the recruitment of 53BP1 and DNA break-responsive effectors to DSB sites, and the promotion of NHEJ-mediated DSB repair via 53BP1, while preventing homologous recombination. In the present review article, recent advances made in the elucidation of the structural and functional characteristics of 53BP1, the mechanisms of 53BP1 recruitment and interaction with the reshaping of the chromatin architecture around DSB sites, the post-transcriptional modifications of 53BP1, and the up- and downstream pathways of 53BP1 are discussed. The present review article also focuses on the application perspectives, current challenges and future directions of 53BP1 research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiantian Lei
- Department of Pharmacy, Women and Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, P.R. China
| | - Suya Du
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Zhe Peng
- Department of Pharmacy, Women and Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, P.R. China
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Women and Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 401147, P.R. China
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4
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Batenburg NL, Mersaoui SY, Walker JR, Coulombe Y, Hammond-Martel I, Wurtele H, Masson JY, Zhu XD. Cockayne syndrome group B protein regulates fork restart, fork progression and MRE11-dependent fork degradation in BRCA1/2-deficient cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 49:12836-12854. [PMID: 34871413 PMCID: PMC8682776 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab1173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cockayne syndrome group B (CSB) protein has been implicated in the repair of a variety of DNA lesions that induce replication stress. However, little is known about its role at stalled replication forks. Here, we report that CSB is recruited to stalled forks in a manner dependent upon its T1031 phosphorylation by CDK. While dispensable for MRE11 association with stalled forks in wild-type cells, CSB is required for further accumulation of MRE11 at stalled forks in BRCA1/2-deficient cells. CSB promotes MRE11-mediated fork degradation in BRCA1/2-deficient cells. CSB possesses an intrinsic ATP-dependent fork reversal activity in vitro, which is activated upon removal of its N-terminal region that is known to autoinhibit CSB’s ATPase domain. CSB functions similarly to fork reversal factors SMARCAL1, ZRANB3 and HLTF to regulate slowdown in fork progression upon exposure to replication stress, indicative of a role of CSB in fork reversal in vivo. Furthermore, CSB not only acts epistatically with MRE11 to facilitate fork restart but also promotes RAD52-mediated break-induced replication repair of double-strand breaks arising from cleavage of stalled forks by MUS81 in BRCA1/2-deficient cells. Loss of CSB exacerbates chemosensitivity in BRCA1/2-deficient cells, underscoring an important role of CSB in the treatment of cancer lacking functional BRCA1/2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L Batenburg
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Sofiane Y Mersaoui
- CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Oncology Division, Department of Molecular Biology, Medical Biochemistry and Pathology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, 9 McMahon, Québec City, Québec G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - John R Walker
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Yan Coulombe
- CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Oncology Division, Department of Molecular Biology, Medical Biochemistry and Pathology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, 9 McMahon, Québec City, Québec G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Ian Hammond-Martel
- Centre de recherche, de l'Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, 5415 boulevard de l'Assomption, Montréal, Québec H1T 2M4, Canada
| | - Hugo Wurtele
- Centre de recherche, de l'Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, 5415 boulevard de l'Assomption, Montréal, Québec H1T 2M4, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Jean-Yves Masson
- CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Oncology Division, Department of Molecular Biology, Medical Biochemistry and Pathology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, 9 McMahon, Québec City, Québec G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Xu-Dong Zhu
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
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5
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Jia N, Guo C, Nakazawa Y, van den Heuvel D, Luijsterburg MS, Ogi T. Dealing with transcription-blocking DNA damage: Repair mechanisms, RNA polymerase II processing and human disorders. DNA Repair (Amst) 2021; 106:103192. [PMID: 34358806 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2021.103192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Transcription-blocking DNA lesions (TBLs) in genomic DNA are triggered by a wide variety of DNA-damaging agents. Such lesions cause stalling of elongating RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) enzymes and fully block transcription when unresolved. The toxic impact of DNA damage on transcription progression is commonly referred to as transcription stress. In response to RNA Pol II stalling, cells activate and employ transcription-coupled repair (TCR) machineries to repair cytotoxic TBLs and resume transcription. Increasing evidence indicates that the modification and processing of stalled RNA Pol II is an integral component of the cellular response to and the repair of TBLs. If TCR pathways fail, the prolonged stalling of RNA Pol II will impede global replication and transcription as well as block the access of other DNA repair pathways that may act upon the TBL. Consequently, such prolonged stalling will trigger profound genome instability and devastating clinical features. In this review, we will discuss the mechanisms by which various types of TBLs are repaired by distinct TCR pathways and how RNA Pol II processing is regulated during these processes. We will also discuss the clinical consequences of transcription stress and genotype-phenotype correlations of related TCR-deficiency disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Jia
- Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China; Department of Genetics, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (RIeM), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Chaowan Guo
- Department of Genetics, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (RIeM), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yuka Nakazawa
- Department of Genetics, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (RIeM), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Diana van den Heuvel
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn S Luijsterburg
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Tomoo Ogi
- Department of Genetics, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (RIeM), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
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6
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Cockayne Syndrome Group B (CSB): The Regulatory Framework Governing the Multifunctional Protein and Its Plausible Role in Cancer. Cells 2021; 10:cells10040866. [PMID: 33920220 PMCID: PMC8068816 DOI: 10.3390/cells10040866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cockayne syndrome (CS) is a DNA repair syndrome characterized by a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations such as neurodegeneration, premature aging, developmental impairment, photosensitivity and other symptoms. Mutations in Cockayne syndrome protein B (CSB) are present in the vast majority of CS patients and in other DNA repair-related pathologies. In the literature, the role of CSB in different DNA repair pathways has been highlighted, however, new CSB functions have been identified in DNA transcription, mitochondrial biology, telomere maintenance and p53 regulation. Herein, we present an overview of identified structural elements and processes that impact on CSB activity and its post-translational modifications, known to balance the different roles of the protein not only during normal conditions but most importantly in stress situations. Moreover, since CSB has been found to be overexpressed in a number of different tumors, its role in cancer is presented and possible therapeutic targeting is discussed.
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7
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Tiwari V, Baptiste BA, Okur MN, Bohr VA. Current and emerging roles of Cockayne syndrome group B (CSB) protein. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 49:2418-2434. [PMID: 33590097 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cockayne syndrome (CS) is a segmental premature aging syndrome caused primarily by defects in the CSA or CSB genes. In addition to premature aging, CS patients typically exhibit microcephaly, progressive mental and sensorial retardation and cutaneous photosensitivity. Defects in the CSB gene were initially thought to primarily impair transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair (TC-NER), predicting a relatively consistent phenotype among CS patients. In contrast, the phenotypes of CS patients are pleiotropic and variable. The latter is consistent with recent work that implicates CSB in multiple cellular systems and pathways, including DNA base excision repair, interstrand cross-link repair, transcription, chromatin remodeling, RNAPII processing, nucleolin regulation, rDNA transcription, redox homeostasis, and mitochondrial function. The discovery of additional functions for CSB could potentially explain the many clinical phenotypes of CSB patients. This review focuses on the diverse roles played by CSB in cellular pathways that enhance genome stability, providing insight into the molecular features of this complex premature aging disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinod Tiwari
- Laboratory of Molecular Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Beverly A Baptiste
- Laboratory of Molecular Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Mustafa N Okur
- Laboratory of Molecular Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Vilhelm A Bohr
- Laboratory of Molecular Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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8
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Batenburg NL, Cui S, Walker JR, Schellhorn HE, Zhu XD. The Winged Helix Domain of CSB Regulates RNAPII Occupancy at Promoter Proximal Pause Sites. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073379. [PMID: 33806087 PMCID: PMC8037043 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cockayne syndrome group B protein (CSB), a member of the SWI/SNF superfamily, resides in an elongating RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) complex and regulates transcription elongation. CSB contains a C-terminal winged helix domain (WHD) that binds to ubiquitin and plays an important role in DNA repair. However, little is known about the role of the CSB-WHD in transcription regulation. Here, we report that CSB is dependent upon its WHD to regulate RNAPII abundance at promoter proximal pause (PPP) sites of several actively transcribed genes, a key step in the regulation of transcription elongation. We show that two ubiquitin binding-defective mutations in the CSB-WHD, which impair CSB's ability to promote cell survival in response to treatment with cisplatin, have little impact on its ability to stimulate RNAPII occupancy at PPP sites. In addition, we demonstrate that two cancer-associated CSB mutations, which are located on the opposite side of the CSB-WHD away from its ubiquitin-binding pocket, impair CSB's ability to promote RNAPII occupancy at PPP sites. Taken together, these results suggest that CSB promotes RNAPII association with PPP sites in a manner requiring the CSB-WHD but independent of its ubiquitin-binding activity. These results further imply that CSB-mediated RNAPII occupancy at PPP sites is mechanistically separable from CSB-mediated repair of cisplatin-induced DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Xu-Dong Zhu
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-905-525-9140 (ext. 27737)
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9
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Batenburg NL, Walker JR, Coulombe Y, Sherker A, Masson JY, Zhu XD. CSB interacts with BRCA1 in late S/G2 to promote MRN- and CtIP-mediated DNA end resection. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 47:10678-10692. [PMID: 31501894 PMCID: PMC6847465 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
CSB, a member of the SWI2/SNF2 superfamily, has been implicated in evicting histones to promote the DSB pathway choice towards homologous recombination (HR) repair. However, how CSB promotes HR repair remains poorly characterized. Here we demonstrate that CSB interacts with both MRE11/RAD50/NBS1 (MRN) and BRCA1 in a cell cycle regulated manner, with the former requiring its WHD and occurring predominantly in early S phase. CSB interacts with the BRCT domain of BRCA1 and this interaction is regulated by CDK-dependent phosphorylation of CSB on S1276. The CSB–BRCA1 interaction, which peaks in late S/G2 phase, is responsible for mediating the interaction of CSB with the BRCA1-C complex consisting of BRCA1, MRN and CtIP. While dispensable for histone eviction at DSBs, CSB phosphorylation on S1276 is necessary to promote efficient MRN- and CtIP-mediated DNA end resection, thereby restricting NHEJ and enforcing the DSB repair pathway choice to HR. CSB phosphorylation on S1276 is also necessary to support cell survival in response to DNA damage-inducing agents. These results altogether suggest that CSB interacts with BRCA1 to promote DNA end resection for HR repair and that although prerequisite, CSB-mediated histone eviction alone is insufficient to promote the pathway choice towards HR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L Batenburg
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - John R Walker
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Yan Coulombe
- Genome Stability Laboratory, CHU de Québec Research Center, HDQ Pavilion, Oncology Division, 9 McMahon, Québec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada.,Department of Molecular Biology, Medical Biochemistry and Pathology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Alana Sherker
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X5, Canada.,Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Jean-Yves Masson
- Genome Stability Laboratory, CHU de Québec Research Center, HDQ Pavilion, Oncology Division, 9 McMahon, Québec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada.,Department of Molecular Biology, Medical Biochemistry and Pathology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Xu-Dong Zhu
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
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10
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Liu Q, Gao J, Zhao C, Guo Y, Wang S, Shen F, Xing X, Luo Y. To control or to be controlled? Dual roles of CDK2 in DNA damage and DNA damage response. DNA Repair (Amst) 2019; 85:102702. [PMID: 31731257 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2019.102702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
CDK2 (cyclin-dependent kinase 2), a member of the CDK family, has been shown to play a role in many cellular activities including cell cycle progression, apoptosis and senescence. Recently, accumulating evidence indicates that CDK2 is involved in DNA damage and DNA repair response (DDR). When DNA is damaged by internal or external genotoxic stresses, CDK2 activity is required for proper DNA repair in vivo and in vitro, whereas inactivation of CDK2 by siRNA techniques or by inhibitors could result in DNA damage and stimulate DDR. Hence, CDK2 seems to play dual roles in DNA damage and DDR. On one aspect, it is activated and stimulates DDR to repair DNA damage when DNA damage occurs; on the other hand, its inactivation directly leads to DNA damage and evokes DDR. Here, we describe the roles of CDK2 in DNA damage and DDR, and discuss the potential application of CDK2 inhibitors as anti-cancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Liu
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Jinlan Gao
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Chenyang Zhao
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Yingying Guo
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Shiquan Wang
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Fei Shen
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Xuesha Xing
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China
| | - Yang Luo
- The Research Center for Medical Genomics, Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, PR China.
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