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Yang C, Zheng H, Amin A, Faheem MS, Duan A, Li L, Xiao P, Li M, Shang J. Follicular Atresia in Buffalo: Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript (CART) and the Underlying Mechanisms. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:2138. [PMID: 39123664 PMCID: PMC11311020 DOI: 10.3390/ani14152138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Atresia is a process in ovarian follicles that is regulated by hormone-induced apoptosis. During atresia, granulosa cell (GC) apoptosis is a key mechanism orchestrated through diverse signaling pathways. Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) signaling within ovarian GCs has been demonstrated to play a key role in the regulation of follicular atresia in cattle, pigs, and sheep. The present work aimed to investigate the potential local regulatory role of CART in GC apoptosis-induced follicular atresia in buffalo, focusing on the modulation of the AKT/GSK3β/β-catenin signaling pathways, which are the intracellular signaling pathways involved in cell viability. Our findings revealed increased expression of CARTPT and BAX and decreased levels of AKT, β-catenin, and CYP19A1 genes in atretic follicles compared to healthy follicles. Subsequently, CART treatment in the presence of FSH inhibited the FSH-induced increase in GC viability by reducing estradiol production and increasing apoptosis. This change was accompanied by an increase in the gene expression levels of both CARTPT and BAX. At the protein level, treatment with CART in the presence of FSH negatively affected the activity of AKT, β-catenin, and LEF1, while the activity of GSK3β was enhanced. In conclusion, our study shows how CART negatively influences buffalo GC viability, underlying the modulation of the AKT/GSK3β/β-catenin pathway and promoting apoptosis-a key factor in follicular atresia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Yang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Haiying Zheng
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Ahmed Amin
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
- Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt;
| | - Marwa S. Faheem
- Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt;
| | - Anqin Duan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Lingyu Li
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
| | - Peng Xiao
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Mengqi Li
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
| | - Jianghua Shang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Reproduction and Breeding, Guangxi Buffalo Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530001, China; (H.Z.); (A.A.); (A.D.); (L.L.); (P.X.); (M.L.)
- Key Laboratory of Buffalo Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Technology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanning 530001, China
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Sinha N, Lydia Walker G, Sen A. Looking at the Future Through the Mother's Womb: Gestational Diabetes and Offspring Fertility. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6379047. [PMID: 34597389 PMCID: PMC8520322 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Altered nutrition or intrauterine exposure to various adverse conditions during fetal development or earlier in a mother's life can lead to epigenetic changes in fetal tissues, predisposing those tissues to diseases that manifest when offspring become adults. An example is a maternal obesity associated with gestational diabetes (GDM), where fetal exposure to a hyperglycemic, hyperinsulinemic, and/or hyperlipidemic gestational environment can provoke epigenetic changes that predispose offspring to various diseased conditions later in life. While it is now well established that offspring exposed to GDM have an increased risk of developing obesity, metabolic disorders, and/or cardiovascular disease in adult life, there are limited studies assessing the reproductive health of these offspring. This mini-review discusses the long-term effect of in utero exposure to GDM-associated adverse prenatal environment on the reproductive health of the offspring. Moreover, using evidence from various animal models and human epidemiological studies, this review offers molecular insight and understanding of how epigenetic reprogramming of genes culminates in reproductive dysfunction and the development of subfertility or infertility later in adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niharika Sinha
- Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Department of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
| | - Gretchen Lydia Walker
- Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Department of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
| | - Aritro Sen
- Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Department of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA
- Correspondence: Aritro Sen, PhD, Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, 3013 Interdisciplinary Science & Technology Building, Michigan State University, 766 Service Rd, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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Zou X, Lu T, Zhao Z, Liu G, Lian Z, Guo Y, Sun B, Liu D, Li Y. Comprehensive analysis of mRNAs and miRNAs in the ovarian follicles of uniparous and multiple goats at estrus phase. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:267. [PMID: 32228439 PMCID: PMC7106838 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-6671-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fertility is an important economic trait in the production of meat goat, and follicular development plays an important role in fertility. Although many mRNAs and microRNAs (miRNAs) have been found to play critical roles in ovarian biological processes, the interaction between mRNAs and miRNAs in follicular development is not yet completely understood. In addition, less attention has been given to the study of single follicle (dominant or atretic follicle) in goats. This study aimed to identify mRNAs, miRNAs, and signaling pathways as well as their interaction networks in the ovarian follicles (large follicles and small follicles) of uniparous and multiple Chuanzhong black goats at estrus phase using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) technique. Results The results showed that there was a significant difference in the number of large follicles between uniparous and multiple goats (P < 0.05), but no difference in the number of small follicles was observed (P > 0.05). For the small follicles of uniparous and multiple goats at estrus phase, 289 differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) and 16 DEmiRNAs were identified; and for the large follicles, 195 DEmRNAs and 7 DEmiRNAs were identified. The functional enrichment analysis showed that DE genes in small follicles were significantly enriched in ovarian steroidogenesis and steroid hormone biosynthesis, while in large follicles were significantly enriched in ABC transporters and steroid hormone biosynthesis. The results of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were consistent with those of RNA-seq. Analysis of the mRNA-miRNA interaction network suggested that CD36 (miR-122, miR-200a, miR-141), TNFAIP6 (miR-141, miR-200a, miR-182), CYP11A1 (miR-122), SERPINA5 (miR-1, miR-206, miR-133a-3p, miR-133b), and PTGFR (miR-182, miR-122) might be related to fertility, but requires further research on follicular somatic cells. Conclusions This study was used for the first time to reveal the DEmRNAs and DEmiRNAs as well as their interaction in the follicles of uniparous and multiple goats at estrus phase using RNA-seq technology. Our findings provide new clues to uncover the molecular mechanisms and signaling networks of goat reproduction that could be potentially used to increase ovulation rate and kidding rate in goat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Zou
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China.,State Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Breeding, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Tingting Lu
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Zhifeng Zhao
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Guangbin Liu
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Zhiquan Lian
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yongqing Guo
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Baoli Sun
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Dewu Liu
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yaokun Li
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Wushan Rd., Tianhe Dist, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong Province, China.
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Sinha N, Biswas A, Nave O, Seger C, Sen A. Gestational Diabetes Epigenetically Reprograms the Cart Promoter in Fetal Ovary, Causing Subfertility in Adult Life. Endocrinology 2019; 160:1684-1700. [PMID: 31150057 DOI: 10.1210/en.2019-00319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Intrauterine exposure to various adverse conditions during fetal development can lead to epigenetic changes in fetal tissues, predisposing those tissues to disease conditions later in life. An example is gestational diabetes (GD), where the offspring has a higher risk of developing obesity, metabolic disorders, or cardiovascular disease in adult life. In this study, using two well-established GD (streptozotocin- and high-fat and high-sugar-induced) mouse models, we report that female offspring from GD dams are predisposed toward fertility problems later in life. This predisposition to fertility problems is due to altered ovarian expression of a peptide called cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), which is known to negatively affect folliculogenesis and is induced by elevated leptin levels. Results show that the underlying cause of this altered expression is due to fetal epigenetic modifications involving glucose- and insulin-induced miRNA, miR-101, and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway. These signaling events regulate Ezh2, a histone methyltransferase that promotes H3K27me3, a gene-repressive mark, and CBP/p300, a histone acetyltransferase that promotes H3K27ac, a transcription activation mark, in the fetal ovary. Moreover, the CART promoter has depleted 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and enriched 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) levels. The depletion of H3K27me3 and 5mC repressive marks and subsequent increase in H3K27ac and 5hmC gene-activating marks convert the Cartpt promoter to a "superpromoter." This makes the Cartpt promoter more sensitive to leptin levels that predispose the GD offspring to fertility problems. Therefore, this study provides a mechanistic insight about fetal epigenome reprogramming that manifests to ovarian dysfunction and subfertility later in adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niharika Sinha
- Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Department of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Anindita Biswas
- Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Department of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Olivia Nave
- Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Department of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Christina Seger
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York
| | - Aritro Sen
- Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Department of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
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Yao X, Ei-Samahy MA, Feng X, Zhang T, Li F, Zhang G, Pang J, Nie H, Wang F. Expression and localization of polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase-like protein 5 in the reproductive organs and sperm of Hu sheep. Anim Reprod Sci 2017; 187:159-166. [PMID: 29097063 DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2017.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase-like protein 5 (GALNTL5) is involved in male fertility; however, its involvement in the reproduction and fertility of females remains unclear. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the presence of GALNTL5 in the reproductive organs of ewes during the estrus period and to investigate its expression in cauda epididymal and ejaculated sperm. Results showed that GALNTL5 mRNA and protein were present in some reproductive organs of ewes during the estrus period. The highest levels of GALNTL5 mRNA and protein occurred in the uterine horn and oviductal ampulla and the lowest in the uterine cervix and oviductal infundibulum. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that GALNTL5 protein was mainly located in luminal and glandular epithelial cells of the uterus and oviduct, and in the theca and granulosa cells of the ovary. GALNTL5 gene expression was significantly higher in ejaculated sperm than in cauda epididymal sperm. The amount of GALNTL5 protein in seminal plasma was significantly higher than in ejaculated sperm. Additionally, GALNTL5 was strongly localized in the mid-piece and head of ejaculated sperm, and in the head-tail coupling apparatus and acrosome of cauda epididymal sperm. This is the first evidence that GALNTL5 might play an important role in a range of reproductive functions as well as in sperm motility and capacitation. Further studies are required to evaluate the function of GALNTL5 in reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolei Yao
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - M A Ei-Samahy
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Xu Feng
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Tinging Zhang
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Fengzhe Li
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Guomin Zhang
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Jing Pang
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Haitao Nie
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China
| | - Feng Wang
- Jiangsu Engineering Technology Research Center of Mutton Sheep and Goat Industry, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, PR China.
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Li P, Yu X, Xie J, Yao X, Liu W, Yao J, Zhu Z, Lyu L. Expression of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) in hen ovary. Biol Res 2017; 50:18. [PMID: 28532517 PMCID: PMC5440929 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-017-0123-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), discovered initially by via differential display RT-PCR analysis of brains of rats administered cocaine, is expressed mainly in central nervous system or neuronal origin cells, and is involved in a wide range of behaviors, such as regulation of food intake, energy homeostasis, and reproduction. The hens egg-laying rate mainly depends on the developmental status of follicles, expression of CART have not been identified from hen follicles, the regulatory mechanisms of CART biological activities are still unknown. The objective of this study was to characterize the mRNA expression of CART in hen follicular granulosa cells and determine CART peptide localization and regulatory role during follicular development. Methods Small white follicles (1–2 mm in diameter) were treated for RNA isolation; Small white follicles (1–2 mm in diameter) and large white follicles (4–6 mm in diameter) were treated for immunohistochemical localization and large white follicles (4–6 mm in diameter), small yellow follicles (6–8 mm in diameter), large yellow follicles (9–12 mm in diameter), mature follicles (F5, F4, F3, F2, F1, >12 mm in diameter) were treated for RNA isolation and Real time PCR. Results The results showed that full length of the CDS of hen CART was 336 bp encoding a 111 amino acid polypeptide. In the hen ovary, CART peptide was primarily localized to the theca layer, but not all, the oocyte and granulosa layer, with diffused, weaker staining than relative to the theca cell layer. Further, amount of CART mRNA was more (P < 0.05) in granulosa cells of 6–8 mm follicles compared with that in granulosa cells of other follicles. However, CART mRNA amount was greater in theca cells of 4–6 mm follicles relative to follicles of other sizes (P < 0.05). Conclusions Results suggest that CART could play a potential role in developmental regulation of chicken follicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Li
- College of Life Science, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Xuejing Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Jianshan Xie
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030001, Shanxi, China
| | - Xiaolei Yao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Wenzhong Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Jianbo Yao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China.,Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Zhiwei Zhu
- College of Life Science, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Lihua Lyu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China.
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Juengel JL, French MC, Quirke LD, Kauff A, Smith GW, Johnstone PD. Differential expression of CART in ewes with differing ovulation rates. Reproduction 2017; 153:471-479. [DOI: 10.1530/rep-16-0657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
We hypothesised that cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CARTPT) would be differentially expressed in ewes with differing ovulation rates. Expression of mRNA forCARTPT, as well asLHCGR,FSHR,CYP19A1andCYP17A1was determined in antral follicles ≥1 mm in diameter collected during the follicular phase in ewes heterozygous for the Booroola and Inverdale genes (I+B+; average ovulation rate 4) and ++ contemporaries (++; average ovulation rate 1.8). In ++ ewes (n = 6),CARTPTwas expressed in small follicles (1 to <3 mm diameter), where 18.8 ± 2.5% follicles expressedCARTPT. CART peptide was also detected in follicular fluid of some follicles of ++ ewes. In I+B+ ewes, 5/6 ewes did not have any follicles that expressedCARTPT, and no CART peptide was detected in any follicle examined. Expression pattern ofCYP19A1differed between I+B+ and ++ ewes with an increased percentage of small and medium follicles (3 to <4.5 mm diameter) but decreased percentage of large follicles (≥4.5 mm diameter) expressingCYP19A1in the I+B+ ewes. Many of the large follicles from the I+B+ ewes appeared non-functional and expression ofLHCGR,FSHR,CYP17A1andCYP19A1was less than that observed in ++ ewes. Expression ofFSHRandCYP17A1was not different between groups in small and medium follicles, butLHCGRexpression was approximately double in I+B+ ewes compared to that in ++ ewes. Thus, ewes with high ovulation rates had a distinct pattern of expression ofCARTPTmRNA and protein compared to ewes with normal ovulation rates, providing evidence for CART being important in the regulation of ovulation rate.
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