Prognostic Value of the Right Ventricular Ejection Fraction, Assessed by Fully Automated Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: A Direct Comparison of Analyses Using Right Ventricular-Focused Views versus Apical Four-Chamber Views

Multimodality Imaging for Right Ventricular Function Assessment in Severe Tricuspid Regurgitation

Severe tricuspid regurgitation (TR) is a pathological condition associated with worse cardiovascular outcomes. In the vicious cycle of right ventricular compensation and maladaptation to TR, the development of right ventricle (RV) dysfunction has significant prognostic implications, especially in patients undergoing surgical or percutaneous treatments. Indeed, RV dysfunction is associated with increased operative morbidity and mortality in both surgical and percutaneously treated patients. In this context, the identification of clinical or subtle right ventricle dysfunction plays a critical role inpatient selection and timing of surgical or percutaneous tricuspid valve intervention. However, in the presence of severe TR, evaluation of RV function is challenging, given the increase in preload that may lead to an overestimation of systolic function for the Frank-Starling law, reduced reliability of pulmonary artery pressure estimation, the sensitivity of RV to afterload that may result in afterload mismatch after treatment. Consequently, conventional echocardiographic indices have some limitations, and the use of speckle tracking for right ventricular free wall longitudinal strain (RV-FWLS) analysis and the use of 3D echocardiography for RV volumes and ejection fraction estimation are showing promising data. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) represents the gold standards for volumes and ejection fraction evaluation and may add further prognostic information. Finally, cardiac computer tomography (CCT) provides measurements of RV and annulus dimensions that are particularly useful in the transcatheter field. Identification of subtle RV dysfunction may need, therefore, more than one imaging technique, which will lead to tip the balance between medical therapy and early intervention towards the latter before disease progression. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe the main imaging techniques, providing a comprehensive assessment of their role in RV function evaluation in the presence of severe TR.

Artificial intelligence: The future for multimodality imaging of right ventricle

The crucial pathophysiological and prognostic roles of the right ventricle in various diseases have been well-established. Nonetheless, conventional cardiovascular imaging modalities are frequently associated with intrinsic limitations when evaluating right ventricular (RV) morphology and function. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in multimodality imaging presents a promising avenue to circumvent these obstacles, paving the way for future fully automated imaging paradigms. This review aimed to address the current challenges faced by clinicians and researchers in integrating RV imaging and AI technology, to provide a comprehensive overview of the current applications of AI in RV imaging, and to offer insights into future directions, opportunities, and potential challenges in this rapidly advancing field.

Evolving Role of Three-Dimensional Echocardiography for Right Ventricular Volume Analysis in Pediatric Heart Disease: Literature Review and Clinical Applications

Accurate knowledge of right ventricular (RV) volumes and ejection fraction is fundamental to providing optimal care for pediatric patients with congenital and acquired heart disease, as well as pulmonary hypertension. Traditionally, these volumes have been measured using cardiac magnetic resonance because of its accuracy, reproducibility, and freedom from geometric assumptions. More recently, an increasing number of studies have described the measurement of RV volumes using three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography. In addition, volumes by 3D echocardiography have also been used for outcome research studies in congenital heart surgery. Importantly, 3D echocardiographic acquisitions can be obtained over a small number of cardiac cycles, do not require general anesthesia, and are less costly than CMR. The ease and safety of the 3D echocardiographic acquisitions allow serial studies in the same patient. Moreover, the studies can be performed in various locations, including the intensive care unit, catheterization laboratory, and general clinic. Because of these advantages, 3D echocardiography is ideal for serial evaluation of the same patient. Despite these potential advantages, 3D echocardiography has not become a standard practice in children with congenital and acquired heart conditions. In this report, the authors review the literature on the feasibility, reproducibility, and accuracy of 3D echocardiography in pediatric patients. In addition, the authors investigate the advantages and limitations of 3D echocardiography in RV quantification and offer a pathway for its potential to become a standard practice in the assessment, planning, and follow-up of congenital and acquired heart disease.

Echocardiographic Characteristics of Left and Right Ventricular Longitudinal Function in Patients With a History of Cardiac Surgery

Previous studies have indicated a reduction in right ventricular (RV) longitudinal motion after cardiac surgery. However, the long-term effect of cardiac surgery on longitudinal motion and the involvement of left ventricular (LV) motion remains unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to comprehensively investigate the longitudinal function of the right ventricle and left ventricle in patients who underwent cardiac surgery. The study included patients who underwent comprehensive transthoracic echocardiography with 3-dimensional RV data sets. By propensity score matching of the clinical and echocardiographic variables, including LV and RV ejection fraction, the echocardiographic parameters were compared between patients with and without a history of cardiac surgery (the surgery and nonsurgery groups, respectively). In this study, the surgery group had significantly lower LV global longitudinal strain values than the nonsurgery group, despite having similar LV ejection fraction. The tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), tricuspid annular velocity, and RV free wall longitudinal strain were also significantly smaller in the surgery group, whereas the RV ejection fraction was comparable between the 2 groups. In addition, a subgroup analysis based on the time from previous surgery to transthoracic echocardiography (≤1 and >1 year) revealed that TAPSE was reduced in both postoperative phases. In conclusion, LV and RV longitudinal parameters were reduced after cardiac surgery, despite preserved LV and RV global functions. Moreover, TAPSE was reduced even after a long time after cardiac surgery. These findings emphasize the need for careful interpretation of biventricular longitudinal motion in patients with a history of cardiac surgery.

Tricuspid Regurgitation and Right Heart Failure: The Role of Imaging in Defining Pathophysiology, Presentation, and Novel Management Strategies

During the last few years, there has been a substantial shift in efforts to understand and manage secondary or functional tricuspid regurgitation (TR) given its prevalence, adverse prognostic impact, and symptom burden associated with progressive right heart failure. Understanding the pathophysiology of TR and right heart failure is crucial for determining the best treatment strategy and improving outcomes. In this article, we review the complex relationship between right heart structural and hemodynamic changes that drive the pathophysiology of secondary TR and discuss the role of multimodality imaging in the diagnosis, management, and determination of outcomes.

Comparison of prognostic value among echocardiographic surrogates of right ventricular-pulmonary arterial coupling: A three-dimensional echocardiographic study

OBJECTIVES

Right ventricular (RV)-pulmonary arterial (PA) coupling is important in various cardiac diseases. Recently, several echocardiographic surrogates for RV-PA coupling have been proposed and reported to be useful in predicting outcomes. However, it remains unclear which surrogate is the most clinically relevant. This study aimed to comprehensively compare the prognostic value of different echocardiographic RV-PA coupling surrogates.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 242 patients with various cardiac conditions who underwent comprehensive transthoracic echocardiography with three-dimensional RV data. In addition to conventional parameters including tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), fractional area change (FAC), and PA systolic pressure (PASP), we analyzed RV free wall and global longitudinal strain (FWLS and GLS). We also obtained RV ejection fraction (RVEF), stroke volume (SV), and end-systolic volume (ESV) using three-dimensional RV analysis. RV-PA coupling surrogates were calculated as TAPSE/PASP, FAC/PASP, FWLS/PASP, GLS/PASP, RVEF/PASP, and SV/ESV. The study endpoint was a composite outcome of all-cause death or cardiovascular hospitalization within 1 year.

RESULTS

In multivariable analysis, all the RV-PA coupling surrogates were independent predictors of the outcome. Among the surrogates, the model with TAPSE/PASP showed the lowest prognostic value in model fit and discrimination ability, whereas the model with RVEF/PASP exhibited the highest prognostic value. The partial likelihood ratio test indicated that the model with RVEF/PASP was significantly better than the model with TAPSE/PASP (p < .024).

CONCLUSION

All the RV-PA coupling surrogates were independent predictors of the outcome. Notably, RVEF/PASP had the highest prognostic value among the surrogates.

Added value of 3D echocardiography in the diagnosis and prognostication of patients with right ventricular dysfunction

Recent inroads into percutaneous-based options for the treatment of tricuspid valve disease has brought to light how little we know about the behavior of the right ventricle in both health and disease and how incomplete our assessment of right ventricular (RV) physiology and function is using current non-invasive technology, in particular echocardiography. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of what three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) can offer currently to enhance RV evaluation and what the future may hold if we continue to improve the 3D evaluation of the right heart.

The Echocardiographic Evaluation of the Right Heart: Current and Future Advances

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To discuss physiologic and methodologic advances in the echocardiographic assessment of right heart (RH) function, including the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and point-of-care ultrasound.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have highlighted the prognostic value of right ventricular (RV) longitudinal strain, RV end-systolic dimensions, and right atrial (RA) size and function in pulmonary hypertension and heart failure. While RA pressure is a central marker of right heart diastolic function, the recent emphasis on venous excess imaging (VExUS) has provided granularity to the systemic consequences of RH failure. Several methodological advances are also changing the landscape of RH imaging including post-processing 3D software to delineate the non-longitudinal (radial, anteroposterior, and circumferential) components of RV function, as well as AI segmentation- and non-segmentation-based quantification. Together with recent guidelines and advances in AI technology, the field is shifting from specific RV functional metrics to integrated RH disease-specific phenotypes. A modern echocardiographic evaluation of RH function should focus on the entire cardiopulmonary venous unit-from the venous to the pulmonary arterial system. Together, a multi-parametric approach, guided by physiology and AI algorithms, will help define novel integrated RH profiles for improved disease detection and monitoring.

Tricuspid Regurgitation and Right Heart Failure: The Role of Imaging in Defining Pathophysiology, Presentation, and Novel Management Strategies

During the last few years, there has been a substantial shift in efforts to understand and manage secondary or functional tricuspid regurgitation (TR) given its prevalence, adverse prognostic impact, and symptom burden associated with progressive right heart failure. Understanding the pathophysiology of TR and right heart failure is crucial for determining the best treatment strategy and improving outcomes. In this article, we review the complex relationship between right heart structural and hemodynamic changes that drive the pathophysiology of secondary TR and discuss the role of multimodality imaging in the diagnosis, management, and determination of outcomes.

Echocardiographic determination of right ventricular volumes and ejection fraction: Validation of a truncated cone and rhomboid pyramid formula

BACKGROUND

Echocardiographic assessment of right ventricular (RV) measurements may be challenging. The aim of this study was to develop a formula for calculation of RV volumes and function based on measurements of linear dimensions by 2-dimensional (2D) transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) in comparison to cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR).

METHODS

129 consecutive patients with standard TTE and RV analysis by CMR were included. A formula based on the geometric assumptions of a truncated cone minus a truncated rhomboid pyramid was developed for calculations of RV end-diastolic volume (EDV) and RV end-systolic volume (ESV) by using the basal diameter of the RV (Dd and Ds) and the baso-apical length (Ld and Ls) in apical 4-chamber TTE views: RV EDV = 1.21 * Dd2 * Ld, and RV ESV = 1.21 * Ds2 * Ls.

RESULTS

Calculations of RV EDV (ΔRV EDV = 10.2±26.4 ml to CMR, r = 0.889), RV ESV (ΔRV ESV = 4.5±18.4 ml to CMR, r = 0.921) and RV EF (ΔRV EF = 0.5±4.0% to CMR, r = 0.905) with the cone-pyramid formula (CPF) highly agreed with CMR. Impaired RV function on CMR (n = 52) was identified with a trend to higher accuracy by CPF than by conventional echocardiographic parameters (tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) and fractional area change (FAC)).

CONCLUSION

Calculations of RV volumes and RV function by 2D TTE with the newly developed CPF were in high concordance to measurements by CMR. Accuracy for detection of patients with reduced RV function were higher by the proposed 2D TTE CPF method than by conventional echocardiographic parameters of TAPSE and RV FAC.

Multimodality Imaging of Right Heart Function: JACC Scientific Statement

Right ventricular (RV) size and function assessed by multimodality imaging are associated with outcomes in a variety of cardiovascular diseases. Understanding RV anatomy and physiology is essential in appreciating the strengths and weaknesses of current imaging methods and gives these measurements greater context. The adaptation of the right ventricle to different types and severity of stress, particularly over time, is specific to the cardiovascular disease process. Multimodality imaging parameters, which determine outcomes, reflect the ability to image the initial and longitudinal RV response to stress. This paper will review the standard and novel imaging methods for assessing RV function and the impact of these parameters on outcomes in specific disease states.

Comparison between Automatic and Semiautomatic System for the 3D Echocardiographic Multiparametric Evaluation of RV Function and Dimension

Background: The right ventricle (RV) plays a pivotal role in cardiovascular diseases and 3-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) has gained acceptance for the evaluation of RV volumes and function. Recently, a new artificial intelligence (AI)–based automated 3DE software for RV evaluation has been proposed and validated against cardiac magnetic resonance. The aims of this study were three-fold: (i) feasibility of the AI-based 3DE RV quantification, (ii) comparison with the semi-automatic 3DE method and (iii) assessment of 2-dimensional echocardiography (2DE) and strain measurements obtained automatically. Methods: A total of 203 subject (122 normal and 81 patients) underwent a 2DE and both the semi-automatic and automatic 3DE methods for Doppler standard, RV volumes and ejection fraction (RVEF) measurements. Results: The automatic 3DE method was highly feasible, faster than 2DE and semi-automatic 3DE and data obtained were comparable with traditional measurements. Both in normal subjects and patients, the RVEF was similar to the two 3DE methods and 2DE and strain measurements obtained by the automated system correlated very well with the standard 2DE and strain ones. Conclusions: results showed that rapid analysis and excellent reproducibility of AI-based 3DE RV analysis supported the routine adoption of this automated method in the daily clinical workflow.

Three-Dimensional Echocardiography Assessment of Right Ventricular Volumes and Function: Technological Perspective and Clinical Application

Right ventricular (RV) function has important prognostic value in a variety of cardiovascular diseases. Due to complex anatomy and mode of contractility, conventional two-dimensional echocardiography does not provide sufficient and accurate RV function assessment. Currently, three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) allows for an excellent and reproducible assessment of RV function owing to overcoming these limitations of traditional echocardiography. This review focused on 3DE and discussed the following points: (i) acquisition of RV dataset for 3DE images, (ii) reliability, feasibility, and reproducibility of RV volumes and function measured by 3DE with different modalities, (iii) the clinical application of 3DE for RV function quantification.

Prognostic Value of Right Ventricular Strains Using Novel Three-Dimensional Analytical Software in Patients With Cardiac Disease

Background

Right ventricular (RV) three-dimensional (3D) strains can be measured using novel 3D RV analytical software (ReVISION). Our objective was to investigate the prognostic value of RV 3D strains.

Methods

We retrospectively selected patients who underwent both 3D echocardiography (3DE) and cardiac magnetic resonance from January 2014 to October 2020. 3DE datasets were analyzed with 3D speckle tracking software and the ReVISION software. The primary end point was a composite of cardiac events, including cardiac death, heart failure hospitalization, or ventricular tachyarrhythmia.

Results

341 patients were included in this analysis. During a median of 20 months of follow-up, 49 patients reached a composite of cardiac events. In univariate analysis, 3D RV ejection fraction (RVEF) and three 3D strain values [RV global circumferential strain (3D RVGCS), RV global longitudinal strain (3D RVGLS), and RV global area strain (3D RVGAS)] were significantly associated with cardiac death, ventricular tachyarrhythmia, or heart failure hospitalization (Hazard ratio: 0.88 to 0.93, p < 0.05). Multivariate analysis revealed that 3D RVEF, three 3D strain values were significantly associated with cardiac events after adjusting for age, chronic kidney disease, and left ventricular systolic/diastolic parameters. Kaplan-Meier survival curves showed that 3D RVEF of 45% and median values of 3D RVGCS, 3D RVGLS, and 3D RVGAS stratified a higher risk for survival rates. Classification and regression tree analysis, including 22 clinical and echocardiographic parameters, selected 3D RVEF (cut-off value: 34.5%) first, followed by diastolic blood pressure (cut-off value: 53 mmHg) and 3D RVGAS (cut-off value: 32.4%) for stratifying two high-risk group, one intermediate-risk group, and one low-risk group.

Conclusions

RV 3D strain had an equivalent prognostic value compared with 3D RVEF. Combining these parameters with 3D RVEF may allow more detailed stratification of patient's prognosis in a wide array of cardiac diseases.

Three-dimensional echocardiographic assessment of the aortic valve and the aorta

We describe the role of three-dimensional echocardiography in the assessment of the aortic valve and the aorta. The manuscript is heavily illustrated with figures and movie clips.

Quantitative assessment of right ventricular size and function with multiple parameters from artificial intelligence-based three-dimensional echocardiography: A comparative study with cardiac magnetic resonance

AIMS

This study aimed to explore the validation and the diagnostic value of multiple right ventricle (RV) volumes and functional parameters derived from a novel artificial intelligence (AI)-based three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) algorithm compared to cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR).

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 51 patients with a broad spectrum of clinical diagnoses were finally included in this study. AI-based RV 3DE was performed in a single-beat HeartModel mode within 24 hours after CMR. In the entire population, RV volumes and right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF) measured by AI-based 3DE showed statistically significant correlations with the corresponding CMR analysis (p < 0.05 for all). However, the Bland-Altman plots indicated that these parameters were slightly underestimated by AI-based 3DE. Based on CMR derived RVEF < 45% as RV dysfunction, end-systolic volume (ESV), end-systolic volume index (ESVi), stroke volume (SV), and RVEF showed great diagnostic performance in identifying RV dysfunction, as well as some non-volumetric parameters, including tricuspid annular systolic excursion (TAPSE), fractional area change (FAC), and free-wall longitudinal strains (LS) (p < 0.05 for all). The cutoff value was 43% for RVEF with a sensitivity of 94% and specificity of 67%.

CONCLUSION

AI-based 3DE could provide rapid and accurate quantitation of the RV volumes and function with multiple parameters. Both volumetric and non-volumetric measurements derived from AI-based 3DE contributed to the identification of the RV dysfunction.

Feasibility and Accuracy of a Fully Automated Right Ventricular Quantification Software With Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Comparison With Cardiac Magnetic Resonance

Background: A novel, fully automated right ventricular (RV) software for three-dimensional quantification of RV volumes and function was developed. The direct comparison of the software performance with cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) was limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test the feasibility, accuracy, and reproducibility of a fully automated RV quantification software against CMR imaging as a reference.

Methods: A total of 170 patients who underwent both CMR and three-dimensional echocardiography were enrolled. RV end-diastolic volume (RVEDV), RV end-systolic volume (RVESV), and RV ejection fraction (RVEF) were obtained using fully automated three-dimensional RV quantification software and compared with a CMR reference. For inter-technical agreement, Spearman correlation and Bland–Altman analysis were used.

Results: The fully automated RV quantification software was feasible in 149 patients. RVEDV and RVESV were underestimated, and RVEF was overestimated compared with CMR values. RV measurements obtained from the manual editing method correlated better with CMR values than that without manual editing (RVEDV, 0.924 vs. 0.794: RVESV, 0.955 vs. 0.854; RVEF, 0.941 vs. 0.781 respectively, all p < 0.0001) with less bias and narrower limit of agreement (LOA). The bias and LOA for RV volumes and EF using the automated software without and with manual editing were greater in patients with severely impaired RV function or low frame rate than those with normal and mild impaired RV function, or high frame rate. The fully automated RV three-dimensional measurements were highly reproducible.

Conclusion: The novel fully automated RV software shows good feasibility and reproducibility, and the measurements had a high correlation with CMR values. These findings support the routine application of the novel 3D automated RV software in clinical practice.