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Su C, Li J, Pan L, Zhang M, Chen Z, Lu M. Immunotoxicity and the mechanisms of aflatoxin B1-induced growth retardation in shrimp and alleviating effects of bile acids. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132266. [PMID: 37595470 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is one of the most toxic mycotoxins prevalent in the environment and food chain, posing severe health risks to humans and animals. Bile acids are natural detergents synthesized from cholesterol and play a key role in the excretion of toxins in vertebrates. Here, pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) served as an animal model to examine the toxicity mechanisms of AFB1 and assess the potential alleviating effects of bile acids against AFB1. Our results revealed that AFB1 exposure significantly inhibited the growth performance and immune response of shrimp, accompanied by AFB1 accumulation and histological damage. Mechanistically, AFB1-induced DNA damage activated DNA repair mechanisms and induced the arrest of cell cycle via the ATR-cyclin B/cdc2 pathway. Additionally, AFB1 directly suppressed the immune response and growth performance of shrimp by inhibiting Toll and IMD pathways and the secretion of digestive enzymes. Notably, dietary bile acids significantly reduced AFB1 accumulation and alleviated AFB1-induced growth retardation and immunotoxicity in shrimp, and CCKAR, ATR, and Relish may be key mediators of the alleviating effects of bile acids. Our study provided new insights into the toxicity mechanisms of AFB1 in invertebrates and highlighted the potential of bile acids to alleviate AFB1 toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Su
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Jinbao Li
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Luqing Pan
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China.
| | - Mengyu Zhang
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Zhifei Chen
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Mingxiang Lu
- The key Laboratory of Mariculture (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
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Rotimi OA, De Campos OC, Adelani IB, Olawole TD, Rotimi SO. Early-life AFB1 exposure: DNA methylation and hormone alterations. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2023; 122:237-252. [PMID: 36863796 DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2022.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of mold that contaminate food and feedstuff. They are found in various food including grains, nuts, milk and eggs. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most poisonous and commonly found of the various types of aflatoxins. Exposures to AFB1 start early in life viz. in utero, during breastfeeding, and during weaning through the waning foods which are mainly grain based. Several studies have shown that early-life exposures to various contaminants may have various biological effects. In this chapter, we reviewed the effects of early-life AFB1 exposures on changes in hormone and DNA methylation. In utero AFB1 exposure results in alterations in steroid and growth hormones. Specifically, the exposure results in a reduction in testosterone levels later in life. The exposure also affects the methylation of various genes that are significant in growth, immune, inflammation, and signaling pathways.
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Filipe D, Gonçalves M, Fernandes H, Oliva-Teles A, Peres H, Belo I, Salgado JM. Shelf-Life Performance of Fish Feed Supplemented with Bioactive Extracts from Fermented Olive Mill and Winery By-Products. Foods 2023; 12:305. [PMID: 36673397 PMCID: PMC9858264 DOI: 10.3390/foods12020305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Fortifying fish feeds with bioactive compounds, such as enzymes and antioxidants, has been an adopted strategy to improve feed nutritional quality and sustainability. However, feed additives can lose activity/effectiveness during pelleting and storage processes. This work aimed to monitor functional activity stability in feeds supplemented with a bioactive extract, including cellulases, xylanases, and antioxidants. This bioactive extract (FBE) was produced by Aspergillus ibericus under solid-state fermentation of olive mill and winery by-products. Two isoproteic and isolipidic diets were formulated and unsupplemented or supplemented with lyophilized FBE (0.26% w/w). Both diets were stored at room temperature (RT) or 4 °C for 4 months. Results showed that feed storage at 4 °C enhanced the stability of the enzymes and cellulase was more stable than xylanase. Compared to RT, storage at 4 °C increased cellulase and xylanase half-life by circa 60 and 14%. Dietary FBE supplementation increased antioxidant activity and storage at 4 °C reduced antioxidant activity loss, while in the unsupplemented diet, antioxidant activity decreased to the same level in both storage temperatures. Dietary supplementation with FBE reduced lipid peroxidation by 17 and 19.5% when stored at 4 °C or RT, respectively. The present study is a step toward improving the storage conditions of diets formulated with bioactive compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Filipe
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Oporto (FCUP), 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Margarida Gonçalves
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Helena Fernandes
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Aires Oliva-Teles
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Oporto (FCUP), 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Helena Peres
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Oporto (FCUP), 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Isabel Belo
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - José Manuel Salgado
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- Biotecnia Group, Campus Agua, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Vigo, Campus As Lagoas s/n, 32004 Ourense, Spain
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Gillani SWUHS, Sadef Y, Imran M, Raza HMF, Ghani A, Anwar S, Ashraf MY, Hussain S. Determination and detoxification of aflatoxin and ochratoxin in maize from different regions of Pakistan. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:613. [PMID: 35882690 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10197-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The contamination of food commodities with mycotoxins could be a serious health threat to humans and animals. Therefore, identification, quantification and reduction of mycotoxins in food commodities, particularly of aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in grain foods, is essentially required to guarantee safe food. This study determined the levels of AFs and OTA in 135 maize grains samples belonging to eight salient maize varieties cultivated in Pakistan, and evaluated the usefulness of radiations and adsorbents to reduce their levels. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based method was validated for the determination of AFs and OTA in maize grains. The results showed that 69 and 61% samples were positive for AFs and OTA, respectively and 54 and 22% of the respective samples had AFs and OTA above the permissible limits set by Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority. The concentration of AFs, AFB1and OTA in grains ranged from 14.5 to 92.4, 1.02 to 2.46 and 1.41 to 53.9 μg kg-1, respectively. Among the varieties, Pearl had the highest level of total AFs and OTA, whereas YH-5427 had the highest AFB1 level. The lowest concentration of AFs and OTA was found in Malaka and 30Y87, respectively. The use of 15 kGy gamma irradiation for 24 h, sunlight-drying for 20 h and UV irradiation for 12 h almost completely degraded the mycotoxins. The microwave heating for 120 s resulted in 9-33% degradation of mycotoxins. Moreover, the treatment of grains' extract with activated charcoal (5% w/w) removed > 96% of total AFs and AFB1, and up to 43% of OTA. The use of bentonite at the same rate removed OTA, total AFs and AFB1 by 93, 73 and 92%, respectively. Thus, it is concluded that contamination of maize grains with mycotoxins was fairly high in the collected maize grain samples in Pakistan, and treatment with radiations and adsorbents can effectively reduce mycotoxins contamination level in maize grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Wajih Ul Hassan Shah Gillani
- Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan.
- College of Earth and Environmental Sciences (CEES), University of the Punjab, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan.
| | - Yumna Sadef
- College of Earth and Environmental Sciences (CEES), University of the Punjab, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Imran
- Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | | | - Aamir Ghani
- Maize and Millet Research Institute (MMRI), Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Sahiwal, 57000, Pakistan
| | - Sumera Anwar
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Yasin Ashraf
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Shabbir Hussain
- Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
- Central Analytical Facility Division, PINSTECH, Islamabad, 45650, Nilore, Pakistan
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A El-Sadawy A, M G Zedan A, Gamal El-Dein HM. Hepatoprotective Role of Clay and Nano Clay for Alleviating Aflatoxin Toxicity in Male Rats. Pak J Biol Sci 2021; 24:1091-1102. [PMID: 34842380 DOI: 10.3923/pjbs.2021.1091.1102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
<b>Background and Objective:</b> Aflatoxin formed by <i>Aspergillus</i> sp. causes acute hepatotoxicity by DNA damage, gene expression disruption and induced liver carcinoma in humans and laboratory animals. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the protective role of both clay and nano clay as adsorbents to inhibit the side effect of Aflatoxin (AF) by measures the common biological assay of aflatoxicosis in rats along with hepatic gene expression and comet assay. <b>Materials and Methods:</b> Six weeks old male albino rats were distributed into 6 groups with 10 rats per group fed on, Group 1: Basal diet, Group 2: Basal diet with clay (5 g kg<sup></sup><sup>1</sup> diet), Group 3: Basal diet with nano clay (5 g kg<sup></sup><sup>1</sup> diet), Group 4: AF-contaminated diet (1 mg kg<sup></sup><sup>1</sup> diet), Group 5: AF with clay, Group 6: AF with nano clay. <b>Results:</b> AF induced a noticeable increase in the liver function parameters, accompanied by a significant decrease in antioxidant enzyme activities and significant histological alterations in liver tissues. The obtained qPCR results showed a significant up regulation in the expression of Cyp3A6, HO-1, TNFα and NFKB genes in the liver of rats treated with aflatoxin. In contrast, there is a significant down regulation in the expression levels of the Glut2 gene in liver rats treated with aflatoxin. Also, aflatoxin induced a significant increase in DNA damage. Clay and nano clay succeeded in ameliorating the toxic effects of aflatoxin. <b>Conclusion:</b> The results indicated the effective role of clay and nano clay in alleviating aflatoxin and reduce its harmful effects.
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Identification of Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin in home mix layer poultry feed in relation to seasons in Karachi, Pakistan. Trop Anim Health Prod 2019; 51:1321-1327. [PMID: 30710247 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-019-01818-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Fungal toxins in feed are leading issue in poultry industry causing a detrimental effect on the performance and health of poultry. The study was carried out to determine the incidence and concentration of the aflatoxins and their major producer Aspergillus flavus in home mix layer poultry feed in respect of seasonal variation throughout the year. A total of (n = 204) home mix poultry layer feed samples were analyzed for the isolation of fungi. The isolates were initially screened through colony morphology and microscopic examination. However, aflatoxin concentration was determined by ELISA. Revealed results indicated that, the highest percentage of A. flavus was found during the months of June to August 50/54 (92.5%) followed by September to November 43/65 (66.1%), March to May 21/40 (52.5%), and December to February 18/45 (40%). As a whole, the incidence was recorded 132/204 (64.7%). Moreover, of the 132 samples, 41 (31%) were exceeded in respect of aflatoxin contamination from the legal limit (20 μg/kg) imposed by Food Drug Association (FDA). Statistically, the growth of A. flavus and aflatoxin production was found significantly different in respect of seasonal variation. As highest total viable fungal count (9.9 × 104 CFU/g) and aflatoxin level (72.27 μg/kg) were recorded during the months of June to August and lowest in December to February. Consequently, instantaneous essential control measures are demanded regarding appropriate storage and adequate drying in post-harvesting season. Along with surveillance plans and austere regulations for monitoring the aflatoxin contents for the wellbeing of consumers.
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Peng Z, Chen L, Zhu Y, Huang Y, Hu X, Wu Q, Nüssler AK, Liu L, Yang W. Current major degradation methods for aflatoxins: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Qu D, Huang X, Han J, Man N. Efficacy of mixed adsorbent in ameliorating ochratoxicosis in broilers fed ochratoxin A contaminated diets. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/1828051x.2017.1302822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daofeng Qu
- Food Safety Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaolin Huang
- Food Safety Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianzhong Han
- Food Safety Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Nana Man
- Hangzhou Seed Station, Hangzhou, China
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Santacroce MP, Iaffaldano N, Zacchino V, Rosato MP, Casalino E, Centoducati G. Effects of Aflatoxin Bi on liver phase I and phase II enzymes inducedin vitroon Sparus aurata hepatocytes primary culture. ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.4081/ijas.2012.e60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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10
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Mahrous KF, Hassan AM, Radwan HA, Mahmoud MA. Inhibition of cadmium- induced genotoxicity and histopathological changes in Nile tilapia fish by Egyptian and Tunisian montmorillonite clay. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2015; 119:140-147. [PMID: 26001163 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is an important inorganic toxicant widely distributed in the environment because of its various industrial uses. The aims of the current study were to investigate the efficacy of purified Egyptian and Tunisian montmorillonite clays (EMC and TMC) to inhibit genotoxicity and histological alterations induced by cadmium chloride (CdCl2) utilizing the Nile tilapia fish as an in vivo model. Chromosomal aberrations (CAs), micronucleus (MN) frequencies and DNA fingerprinting profile were genotoxic end points and histopathological changes that were used in this investigation. Six groups of fish were treated for 2 weeks and included control group, CdCl2-treated group and groups treated with EMC or TMC alone or in combination with CdCl2. The present results revealed that, treatment of fish with CdCl2 exhibited significant increased in the number of micronucleated erythrocytes (MnRBCs), frequency of CAs and instability of genomic DNA. Treatment of EMC and TMC in combination with CdCl2 significantly reduced the frequency of MnRBCs by the percentage of 53.28% and 60.77% and the frequency of CAs by 43.91% and 52.17% respectively. As well as, normalized DNA fingerprinting profile and significantly improved histopathological picture induced by Cadmium treatment. It is worth mention that both clays have the ability to tightly bind CdCl2 and decreased its cytotoxicity and genotoxicity; however, Tunisian clay was more efficient in binding with the CdCl2 than Egyptian clay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karima F Mahrous
- Cell Biology Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohooth Street, Dokki, Giza, Egypt.
| | - Aziza M Hassan
- Cell Biology Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohooth Street, Dokki, Giza, Egypt; Biotechnology Department, Faculty of Science, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hasnaa A Radwan
- Cell Biology Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohooth Street, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - M A Mahmoud
- Department of Pathology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, El Giza Square, Giza, Egypt
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Effectiveness of activated carbon and Egyptian montmorillonite in the protection against deoxynivalenol-induced cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 83:174-82. [PMID: 26115597 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to prepare and characterize activated carbon (AC) and to evaluate its protective effect against deoxynivalenol (DON) toxicity in rats compared to Egyptian montmorillonite (EM). AC was prepared using a single-step chemical activation with phosphoric acid (H3PO4). The resulted AC has a high surface area and a high total pore volume. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 6 groups (n = 10) and treated for 3 weeks as follow: the control group, the groups fed AC or EM-supplemented diet (0.5% w/w), the group treated orally with DON (5 mg/kg b.w.) and the groups fed AC or EM-supplemented diet and treated with DON. Blood and liver samples were collected for different analyses. Treatment with DON increased liver function enzymes, lipid peroxidation, tumor necrosis factor α, DNA fragmentation, decreased hepatic glutathione content, up regulating mRNA Fas and TNF-α genes expression and increased micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes and normochromatic erythrocytes in bone marrow. Co-treatment of DON plus AC or EM succeeded to normalize the levels of the biochemical parameters, reduced the cytotoxicity of bone marrow and ameliorated the hepatic genotoxicity. Moreover, AC was more effective than EM and has a high affinity to adsorb DON and to reduce its cytotoxicity and genotoxicity.
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Abdel-Wahhab MA, El-Denshary ES, El-Nekeety AA, Abdel-Wahhab KG, Hamzawy MA, Elyamany MF, Hassan NS, Mannaa FA, Shaiea MNQ, Gado RA, Zawrah MF. Efficacy of Organo-Modified Nano Montmorillonite to Protect against the Cumulative Health Risk of Aflatoxin B<sub>1</sub> and Ochratoxin A in Rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.4236/snl.2015.52004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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13
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Zychowski KE, Hoffmann AR, Ly HJ, Pohlenz C, Buentello A, Romoser A, Gatlin DM, Phillips TD. The effect of aflatoxin-B1 on red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) and assessment of dietary supplementation of NovaSil for the prevention of aflatoxicosis. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:1555-73. [PMID: 24064717 PMCID: PMC3798873 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5091555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Revised: 08/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a potent carcinogen that causes growth stunting, immunosuppression and liver cancer in multiple species. The recent trend of replacing fishmeal with plant-based proteins in fish feed has amplified the AFB1 exposure risk in farm-raised fish. NovaSil (NS), a calcium montmorillonite clay, has previously been shown to reduce AFB1 bioavailability safely and efficaciously in several mammalian species. This study was designed to: (1) evaluate AFB1 impact on cultured red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, over the course of seven weeks; and (2) assess NS supplementation as a strategy to prevent aflatoxicosis. Fish were fed diets containing 0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, or 5 ppm AFB1. Two additional treatment groups were fed either 5 ppm AFB1 + 1% NS or 5 ppm AFB1 + 2% NS. Aflatoxin B1 negatively impacted red drum weight gain, survival, feed efficiency, serum lysozyme concentration, hepatosomatic index (HSI), whole-body lipid levels, liver histopathological scoring, as well as trypsin inhibition. NovaSil inclusion in AFB1-contaminated diets improved weight gain, feed efficiency, serum lysozyme concentration, muscle somatic index, and intraperitoneal fat ratios compared to AFB1-treated fish. Although not significant, NS reduced AFB1-induced histopathological changes in the liver and decreased Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) staining. Importantly, NS supplementation improved overall health of AFB1-exposed red drum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E. Zychowski
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, TAMU 4458, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.Z.); (A.R.H.); (H.J.L.); (A.R.)
| | - Aline Rodrigues Hoffmann
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, TAMU 4458, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.Z.); (A.R.H.); (H.J.L.); (A.R.)
| | - Hoai J. Ly
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, TAMU 4458, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.Z.); (A.R.H.); (H.J.L.); (A.R.)
| | - Camilo Pohlenz
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Texas A&M University, 2258 TAMUS, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (C.P.); (A.B.); (D.M.G.)
| | - Alejandro Buentello
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Texas A&M University, 2258 TAMUS, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (C.P.); (A.B.); (D.M.G.)
- Schillinger Genetics, 4401 Westown Parkway, Suite 225, West Des Moines, IA 50266, USA
| | - Amelia Romoser
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, TAMU 4458, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.Z.); (A.R.H.); (H.J.L.); (A.R.)
| | - Delbert M. Gatlin
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Texas A&M University, 2258 TAMUS, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (C.P.); (A.B.); (D.M.G.)
| | - Timothy D. Phillips
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, TAMU 4458, College Station, TX 77843, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.Z.); (A.R.H.); (H.J.L.); (A.R.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-979-845-6414; Fax: +1-979-862-4929
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