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Jiang Z, Chen L, Wang T, Zhao J, Liu S, He Y, Wang L, Wu H. Autophagy accompanying the developmental process of male germline stem cells. Cell Tissue Res 2024; 398:1-14. [PMID: 39141056 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-024-03910-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Germline stem cells are a crucial type of stem cell that can stably pass on genetic information to the next generation, providing the necessary foundation for the reproduction and survival of organisms. Male mammalian germline stem cells are unique cell types that include primordial germ cells and spermatogonial stem cells. They can differentiate into germ cells, such as sperm and eggs, thereby facilitating offspring reproduction. In addition, they continuously generate stem cells through self-renewal mechanisms to support the normal function of the reproductive system. Autophagy involves the use of lysosomes to degrade proteins and organelles that are regulated by relevant genes. This process plays an important role in maintaining the homeostasis of germline stem cells and the synthesis, degradation, and recycling of germline stem cell products. Recently, the developmental regulatory mechanism of germline stem cells has been further elucidated, and autophagy has been shown to be involved in the regulation of self-renewal and differentiation of germline stem cells. In this review, we introduce autophagy accompanying the development of germline stem cells, focusing on the autophagy process accompanying the development of male spermatogonial stem cells and the roles of related genes and proteins. We also briefly outline the effects of autophagy dysfunction on germline stem cells and reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuofei Jiang
- Department of Gynecology, Foshan Woman and Children Hospital, Foshan, China
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Tissue Engineering, The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Liji Chen
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Tissue Engineering, The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, Guangzhou Huadu District Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital (Huzhong Hospital of Huadu District), Guangzhou, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Surgery, Longjiang Hospital of Shunde District, Foshan, China
| | - Jie Zhao
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Tissue Engineering, The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Shuxian Liu
- Department of Science and Education, Guangzhou Huadu District Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital (Huzhong Hospital of Huadu District), Guangzhou, China
| | - Yating He
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Liyun Wang
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, Guangzhou Huadu District Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital (Huzhong Hospital of Huadu District), Guangzhou, China.
| | - Hongfu Wu
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Tissue Engineering, The First Dongguan Affiliated Hospital, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan, China.
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Huang J, Lu H, Du J, Zhang L, Wei J, Huang Q, Wu S, Zhou X, Ren L. Effects of exposure to PM 2.5 during pregnancy on the multigenerational reproductive outcomes of male mouse offspring and the role of Sertoli cells. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:103823-103835. [PMID: 37697192 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-29751-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
There is a paucity of studies on the multigenerational reproductive toxicity of fine particle matter (PM2.5) exposure during pregnancy on male offspring and the underlying mechanisms. This study explored the effects of PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy on the spermatogenesis of three consecutive generations of male mouse offspring. We randomized pregnant C57BL/6 mice into the control group, the Quartz Fiber Membrane control group, and two experimental groups exposed to different concentrations of PM2.5 (4.8 and 43.2 mg/kg B.Wt.). Pregnant mice from experimental groups received intratracheal instillation of PM2.5 of different doses on a three-day basis until birth. F1 mature male offspring from PM2.5-exposed pregnant mice were mated with normal female C57BL/6 mice. Likewise, their F2 mature male followed the same to produce the F3 generation. The results showed that PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy led to decreased body and tail length, body weight, and survival rates, decreased sperm concentration and sperm motility, and increased sperm abnormality rates significantly in F1 male offspring. We barely observed significant impacts of PM2.5 on the birth number, survival rates, and index of testes in the F2 and F3 offspring. Further exploration showed that PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy caused the morphological abnormality of Sertoli cells, downregulated androgen receptor (AR) and connexin43, upregulated anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), cytokeratin-18 (CK-18), caspase-3, and cleaved caspase-3, decreased thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and testosterone (T), and increased triiodothyronine (T3) in F1 male mouse offspring. Overall, we hypothesize that PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy mainly negatively impacts spermatogenesis in the F1 offspring. The possible mechanism could be that PM2.5 exposure during pregnancy disrupts endocrine hormone release in the F1 generation, thereby influencing the maturation and proliferation of their Sertoli cells and hindering spermatogenesis. This study for the first time investigates the role of Sertoli cells in the reproductive toxicity of PM2.5 on offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Huang
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Hong Lu
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Jiwei Du
- Nursing Department, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, 518040, China
| | - Lianshuang Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Binzhou Medical University, Yan Tai, 264003, China
| | - Jialiu Wei
- Department of Epidemiology, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Centre for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100037, China
| | - Qifang Huang
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Shaowei Wu
- School of Public Health, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Centre, Xi'an, China
| | - Xianqing Zhou
- School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 10069, China
| | - Lihua Ren
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China.
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Kuntic M, Kuntic I, Hahad O, Lelieveld J, Münzel T, Daiber A. Impact of air pollution on cardiovascular aging. Mech Ageing Dev 2023; 214:111857. [PMID: 37611809 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2023.111857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
The world population is aging rapidly, and by some estimates, the number of people older than 60 will double in the next 30 years. With the increase in life expectancy, adverse effects of environmental exposures start playing a more prominent role in human health. Air pollution is now widely considered the most detrimental of all environmental risk factors, with some studies estimating that almost 20% of all deaths globally could be attributed to poor air quality. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide and will continue to account for the most significant percentage of non-communicable disease burden. Cardiovascular aging with defined pathomechanisms is a major trigger of cardiovascular disease in old age. Effects of environmental risk factors on cardiovascular aging should be considered in order to increase the health span and reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease in older populations. In this review, we explore the effects of air pollution on cardiovascular aging, from the molecular mechanisms to cardiovascular manifestations of aging and, finally, the age-related cardiovascular outcomes. We also explore the distinction between the effects of air pollution on healthy aging and disease progression. Future efforts should focus on extending the health span rather than the lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marin Kuntic
- University Medical Center Mainz, Department for Cardiology 1, Molecular Cardiology, Mainz, Germany
| | - Ivana Kuntic
- University Medical Center Mainz, Department for Cardiology 1, Molecular Cardiology, Mainz, Germany
| | - Omar Hahad
- University Medical Center Mainz, Department for Cardiology 1, Molecular Cardiology, Mainz, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Rhine-Main, Mainz, Germany
| | - Jos Lelieveld
- Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Atmospheric Chemistry, Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas Münzel
- University Medical Center Mainz, Department for Cardiology 1, Molecular Cardiology, Mainz, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Rhine-Main, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Andreas Daiber
- University Medical Center Mainz, Department for Cardiology 1, Molecular Cardiology, Mainz, Germany; DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Rhine-Main, Mainz, Germany.
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Liu J, Huang J, Gao L, Sang Y, Li X, Zhou G, Cao L, Lu H, Zhou X, Ren L. Maternal exposure to PM 2.5 disrupting offspring spermatogenesis through induced sertoli cells apoptosis via inhibin B hypermethylation in mice. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2022; 241:113760. [PMID: 35709672 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5) disrupts endocrine functions and may negatively affect sperm quality and quantity in males; however, the long-term effects and potential mechanisms of this effect are unknown. This study aimed to investigate the epigenetic mechanism of maternal exposure to PM2.5-induced inhibin B hypermethylation in male offspring. In this experiment design, pregnant C57BL/6 mice were treated with two doses of PM2.5 (4.8 and 43.2 mg/kg bw). The membrane control group was given a sampling membrane and the control group received nothing. Following the formation of the vaginal plug, intratracheal instillation of PM2.5 was administered every three days until delivery of the pups. To assess the effect of PM2.5 in vitro, TM4 cells, a Sertoli-like cell line, was treated with different concentrations (0, 25, 50, 100 μg/mL) of PM2.5 for 24 h. The results displayed that Sperm motility, as well as the number of adult offspring, was decreased in the PM2.5 exposed group relative to the untreated controls. Increased vacuolization was observed in the Sertoli cells of mice that were exposed to PM2.5 in utero. The levels of inhibin and testosterone were reduced and the levels of LH and FSH increased in the PM2.5 groups relative to the untreated controls. In vitro, PM2.5 resulted in cell cycle inhibition as well as increased apoptosis in TM4 cells. Moreover, PM2.5-induced inhibin B hypermethylation and activation of the p21/Cleaved Caspase-3 pathway resulted in TM4 cell apoptosis that was rescued through the use of a DNA methylation inhibitor. Together, our data suggest that prenatal exposure to PM2.5 results in inhibin B hypermethylation and can activate the p21/Cleaved Caspase-3 pathway, resulting in Sertoli cell apoptosis, aberrant secretion of androgen binding protein, and decreased testosterone, thus resulting in the inhibition of spermatogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhui Liu
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Beijing 100026, China
| | - Jing Huang
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Leqiang Gao
- Department of Toxicology and Hygienic Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Yujian Sang
- Department of Toxicology and Hygienic Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xiangyang Li
- Department of Toxicology and Hygienic Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Guiqing Zhou
- Department of Toxicology and Hygienic Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Linlin Cao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking University Third Hospital, China; National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and Gynecology (Peking University Third Hospital), China
| | - Hong Lu
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xianqing Zhou
- Department of Toxicology and Hygienic Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.
| | - Lihua Ren
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
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Ren L, Jiang J, Huang J, Zang Y, Huang Q, Zhang L, Wei J, Lu H, Wu S, Zhou X. Maternal exposure to PM2.5 induces the testicular cell apoptosis in offspring triggered by the UPR-mediated JNK pathway. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2022; 11:226-234. [PMID: 35237427 PMCID: PMC8882805 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfab116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Contemporary exposure to PM2.5 has been reported to disrupt spermatogenesis. However, the subsequent toxicological responses and the mechanisms of male reproductive damage in offspring induced by maternal exposure to PM2.5 remain largely unknown. For the first time, this study aimed to explore the apoptotic response in spermatogenesis of male offspring following maternal exposure to PM2.5 and its mechanisms. The C57BL/6 mice with vaginal plugs were randomly divided into four groups. Mice in the PM2.5 groups were intratracheally exposed to PM2.5 (4.8 mg/kg body weight, 43.2 mg/kg body weight) during pregnancy (every 3 days, six times in total). The mice in the membrane control group were treated similarly to the PM2.5 groups, applying only PM2.5 sampling membrane, while mice in the control group were kept untreated. The results showed that maternal exposure to PM2.5 during pregnancy resulted in structural lesions of the testis, reduced numbers of primary spermatocytes and spermatids, decreased sperm count and quality, shortened diameter of seminiferous tubules, and reduced testosterone and ABP in the offspring testes. Furthermore, cell apoptosis was increased and protein expression of IRE-1/P-JNK/cleaved caspase-12/cleaved caspase-3 was activated. These findings suggested that maternal exposure to PM2.5 may affect spermatogenesis by increasing apoptosis through activation of UPR-mediated JNK apoptotic pathway in offspring testicles and by reducing testosterone secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihua Ren
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jianjun Jiang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jing Huang
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yu Zang
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Qifang Huang
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Lianshuang Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, BinZhou Medical University, Yan Tai 264003, China
| | - Jialiu Wei
- Department of Epidemiology, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Hong Lu
- Correspondence address. Department of Maternal and Child Nursing, School of Nursing, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China. Tel: +86-10-82805277; E-mail:
| | - Shaowei Wu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xianqing Zhou
- Department of Toxicology and Hygienic Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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Wang M, Zeng L, Su P, Ma L, Zhang M, Zhang YZ. Autophagy: a multifaceted player in the fate of sperm. Hum Reprod Update 2021; 28:200-231. [PMID: 34967891 PMCID: PMC8889000 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmab043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autophagy is an intracellular catabolic process of degrading and recycling proteins and organelles to modulate various physiological and pathological events, including cell differentiation and development. Emerging data indicate that autophagy is closely associated with male reproduction, especially the biosynthetic and catabolic processes of sperm. Throughout the fate of sperm, a series of highly specialized cellular events occur, involving pre-testicular, testicular and post-testicular events. Nonetheless, the most fundamental question of whether autophagy plays a protective or harmful role in male reproduction, especially in sperm, remains unclear. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE We summarize the functional roles of autophagy in the pre-testicular (hypothalamic–pituitary–testis (HPG) axis), testicular (spermatocytogenesis, spermatidogenesis, spermiogenesis, spermiation) and post-testicular (sperm maturation and fertilization) processes according to the timeline of sperm fate. Additionally, critical mechanisms of the action and clinical impacts of autophagy on sperm are identified, laying the foundation for the treatment of male infertility. SEARCH METHODS In this narrative review, the PubMed database was used to search peer-reviewed publications for summarizing the functional roles of autophagy in the fate of sperm using the following terms: ‘autophagy’, ‘sperm’, ‘hypothalamic–pituitary–testis axis’, ‘spermatogenesis’, ‘spermatocytogenesis’, ‘spermatidogenesis’, ‘spermiogenesis’, ‘spermiation’, ‘sperm maturation’, ‘fertilization’, ‘capacitation’ and ‘acrosome’ in combination with autophagy-related proteins. We also performed a bibliographic search for the clinical impact of the autophagy process using the keywords of autophagy inhibitors such as ‘bafilomycin A1’, ‘chloroquine’, ‘hydroxychloroquine’, ‘3-Methyl Adenine (3-MA)’, ‘lucanthone’, ‘wortmannin’ and autophagy activators such as ‘rapamycin’, ‘perifosine’, ‘metformin’ in combination with ‘disease’, ‘treatment’, ‘therapy’, ‘male infertility’ and equivalent terms. In addition, reference lists of primary and review articles were reviewed for additional relevant publications. All relevant publications until August 2021 were critically evaluated and discussed on the basis of relevance, quality and timelines. OUTCOMES (i) In pre-testicular processes, autophagy-related genes are involved in the regulation of the HPG axis; and (ii) in testicular processes, mTORC1, the main gate to autophagy, is crucial for spermatogonia stem cell (SCCs) proliferation, differentiation, meiotic progression, inactivation of sex chromosomes and spermiogenesis. During spermatidogenesis, autophagy maintains haploid round spermatid chromatoid body homeostasis for differentiation. During spermiogenesis, autophagy participates in acrosome biogenesis, flagella assembly, head shaping and the removal of cytoplasm from elongating spermatid. After spermatogenesis, through PDLIM1, autophagy orchestrates apical ectoplasmic specialization and basal ectoplasmic specialization to handle cytoskeleton assembly, governing spermatid movement and release during spermiation. In post-testicular processes, there is no direct evidence that autophagy participates in the process of capacitation. However, autophagy modulates the acrosome reaction, paternal mitochondria elimination and clearance of membranous organelles during fertilization. WIDER IMPLICATIONS Deciphering the roles of autophagy in the entire fate of sperm will provide valuable insights into therapies for diseases, especially male infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Wang
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China.,Harvard Reproductive Endocrine Science Center and Reproductive Endocrine Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Clinical Medicine Research Center of Prenatal Diagnosis and Birth Health in Hubei Province, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Ling Zeng
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Ping Su
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Ling Ma
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China.,Clinical Medicine Research Center of Prenatal Diagnosis and Birth Health in Hubei Province, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Ming Zhang
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China.,Clinical Medicine Research Center of Prenatal Diagnosis and Birth Health in Hubei Province, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Yuan Zhen Zhang
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China.,Clinical Medicine Research Center of Prenatal Diagnosis and Birth Health in Hubei Province, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
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Elcombe CS, Monteiro A, Ghasemzadeh-Hasankolaei M, Evans NP, Bellingham M. Morphological and transcriptomic alterations in neonatal lamb testes following developmental exposure to low-level environmental chemical mixture. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2021; 86:103670. [PMID: 33964400 PMCID: PMC8316325 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2021.103670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to anthropogenic environmental chemical mixtures could be contributing to the decline in male reproductive health. This study used the biosolid treated pasture (BTP) sheep model to assess the effects of exposure to low-dose chemical mixtures. Maternal BTP exposure was associated with lower plasma testosterone concentrations, a greater proportion of Sertoli cell-only seminiferous tubules, and fewer gonocytes in the testes of neonatal offspring. Transcriptome analysis highlighted changes in testicular mTOR signalling, including lower expression of two mTOR complex components. Transcriptomic hierarchical analysis relative to the phenotypic severity demonstrated distinct differential responses to maternal BTP exposure during pregnancy. Transcriptome analysis between phenotypically normal and abnormal BTP lambs demonstrated separate responses within the cAMP and PI3K signalling pathways towards CREB. Together, the results provide a potential mechanistic explanation for adverse effects. Exposure could lower gonocyte numbers through mTOR mediated autophagy, but CREB mediated survival factors may act to increase germ cell survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris S Elcombe
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK; School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK.
| | - Ana Monteiro
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Mohammad Ghasemzadeh-Hasankolaei
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Neil P Evans
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Michelle Bellingham
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK.
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