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Alighardashi M, Mousavi SA, Almasi A, Mohammadi P. A study of indoor air pollution caused by disinfection equipment as a consequence of infectious waste management. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2024:1-11. [PMID: 38899861 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2024.2368123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Infectious waste disinfection is an essential process in medical waste management that may cause release of some pollutants. In this study, the PAHs concentration at the disinfection was investigated. The change in the release rate of PAHs in two including infectious waste reduction and increasing the segregation ratio was estimated. The results showed that the PAHs concentration was 1172 - 2066 ng/m3. The specific concentration of PAHs was 852 ng/ton of infectious waste in average. The annual emission of the PAHs resulting from infectious waste disinfection is estimated to be 612.6 kg. Reduction of infectious waste caused by redefining infectious waste and increasing the segregation ratio leads to reduction of PAHs concentration by 50%. Increasing the ratio of segregation and redefinition of infectious waste that led to reduced waste loading volume are essential measures that reduce the emissions of pollutants as by-products of disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojgan Alighardashi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- Students Research Committee, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Seyyed Alireza Mousavi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Ali Almasi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Parviz Mohammadi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
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MoghaddamHosseini V, Ebrahimi Aval H, Lari Najafi M, Lotfi H, Heydari H, Miri M, Dadvand P. The association between exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:166922. [PMID: 37699478 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has been linked to adverse birth outcomes; however, to date, the available studies on such relations, with the exception of birth weight, has not been systematically synthesized. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the available observational studies on the association of maternal exposure to PAHs and their metabolites during pregnancy with indicators of fetal growth and gestational age at delivery. We searched Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus systematically for all relevant published papers in English until 13 January 2023. Random effects meta-analysis was applied to synthesize the association estimates. Publication bias was assessed using Egger's regression. A total of 31 articles were included in our review (n = 703,080 participants). Our quality assessment of reviewed papers showed that 19 research had excellent, nine had good, and three had fair quality. Most of the reviewed studies on exposure to PAHs and their metabolites with gestational age and preterm birth (seven studies) reported no statistically significant association. Eight studies were eligible for our meta-analysis. Results of the meta-analysis indicated that higher levels of maternal urinary 1-OHP was associated with lower birth weight, birth length and head circumference and a higher risk of low birth weight (LBW). However, these associations were not statistically significant. Similarly, the combined association between maternal urinary 1-OHP and newborn's Ponderal index (PI) and Cephalization index were not statistically significant. Overall, our systematic review and meta-analysis suggested a potential adverse impact of exposure to PAHs on LBW, HC, and CC; however, further studies are required to be able to draw concrete conclusions on such associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahideh MoghaddamHosseini
- Health of the Elderly Research Center, Department of Midwifery, School of Nursing, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Hamideh Ebrahimi Aval
- Student Research Committee, Department of Health Education and Promotion, School of Health, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Moslem Lari Najafi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Cosmetic Products Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Hadi Lotfi
- Leishmaniasis Research Center, Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Hafez Heydari
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Miri
- Leishmaniasis Research Center, Department of Environmental Health, School of Health, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran.
| | - Payam Dadvand
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain
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Zhang X, Li Z. Investigating industrial PAH air pollution in relation to population exposure in major countries: A scoring approach. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 338:117801. [PMID: 36996564 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are common air pollutants worldwide, associated with industrial processes. In the general population, both modeling and field studies revealed a positive correlation between air PAH concentrations and urinary PAH metabolite levels. Many countries lack population urinary data that correspond to local PAH air concentrations. Thus, we proposed a scoring-based approximate approach to investigating that correlation in selected countries, hypothesizing that PAH air concentrations in selected regions could represent the national air quality influenced by industrial emission and further correlate to PAH internal exposure in the general population. This research compiled 85 peer-reviewed journal articles and 9 official monitoring datasets/reports covering 34 countries, 16 of which with both atmospheric PAH data and human biomonitoring data. For the air pollution score (AirS), Egypt had the highest AirS at 0.94 and Pakistan was at the bottom of the score ranking at -1.95, as well as the median in the UK (AirS: 0.50). For the population exposure score (ExpS), China gained the top ExpS at 0.44 and Spain was with the lowest ExpS of -1.52, with the median value in Italy (ExpS: 0.43). Through the correlation analysis, atmospheric PAHs and their corresponding urinary metabolites provided a positive relationship to a diverse extent, indicating that the related urinary metabolites could reflect the population's exposure to specific atmospheric PAHs. The findings also revealed that in the 16 selected countries, AirS indexes were positively correlated with ExpS indexes, implying that higher PAH levels in the air may lead to elevated metabolite urinary levels in general populations. Furthermore, lowering PAH air concentrations could reduce population internal PAH exposure, implying that strict PAH air regulation or emission would reduce health risks for general populations. Notably, this study was an ideal theoretical research based on proposed assumptions to some extent. Further research should focus on understanding exposure pathways, protecting vulnerable populations, and improving the PAH database to optimize PAH pollution control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Zhang
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518107, China
| | - Zijian Li
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518107, China.
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Geldenhuys G, Orasche J, Jakobi G, Zimmermann R, Forbes PBC. Characterization of Gaseous and Particulate Phase Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Emitted During Preharvest Burning of Sugar Cane in Different Regions of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2023; 42:778-792. [PMID: 36718764 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Biomass burning is a significant anthropogenic source of air pollution, including the preharvest burning of sugar cane. These burn events result in atmospheric emissions, including semivolatile organic compounds, that may have adverse impacts on air quality and human health on a local, regional, and even a global scale. Gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions from various sugar cane burn events in the province of Kwa-Zulu Natal in South Africa were simultaneously sampled using a portable denuder sampling technology, consisting of a quartz fiber filter sandwiched between two polydimethylsiloxane multichannel traps. Total gas and particle phase PAH concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 9.85 µg m-3 per individual burn event, and nine PAHs were quantified. Over 85% of all PAHs were found to exist in the gas phase, with smaller two- and three-ring PAHs, primarily naphthalene, 1-methyl naphthalene, and acenaphthylene, being the most dominant and causing the majority of variance between the burn sites. The PAH profiles differed between the different burn events at different sites, emphasizing the significant influence that the crop variety, prevailing weather conditions, and geographical location has on the type and number of pollutants emitted. The potential carcinogenicity of the PAH exposure was estimated based on toxic equivalency factors that showed varying risk potentials per burn event, with the highest value of 5.97 ng m-3 . Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:778-792. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Geldenhuys
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Processing Laboratory, Impala Platinum, Rustenburg, South Africa
- Skin Rejuvenation Technologies, Irene, South Africa
| | - J Orasche
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre, Cooperation Group "Comprehensive Molecular Analytics," Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - G Jakobi
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre, Cooperation Group "Comprehensive Molecular Analytics," Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - R Zimmermann
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre, Cooperation Group "Comprehensive Molecular Analytics," Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- Joint Mass Spectrometry Centre, Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Patricia B C Forbes
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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Jakovljević I, Smoljo I, Sever Štrukil Z, Pehnec G. Carcinogenic Activity and Risk Assessment of PAHs in Ambient Air: PM 10 Particle Fraction and Bulk Deposition. TOXICS 2023; 11:toxics11030228. [PMID: 36976993 PMCID: PMC10051387 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11030228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper present seasonal variation in the equivalent concentration (BaPeq) of PAHs in order to assess the potential cancer risk for two different groups of residents via ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation pathways. The possible ecological risk caused by PAH atmospheric deposition based on risk quotient was also estimated. A bulk (total, wet and dry) deposition and PM10 particle fraction (particles with an equivalent aerodynamic diameter < 10 µm) were collected from June 2020 to May 2021 at an urban residential location in the northern part of Zagreb, Croatia. The monthly average of total equivalent BaPeq mass concentrations of PM10 varied from 0.057 ng m-3 in July to 3.656 ng m-3 in December; the annul ∑BaPeq average was 1.348 ng m-3. In bulk deposition, ∑BaPeq mass concentrations varied from 1.94 to 57.60 ng L-1. In both investigated media, BaP had the highest contribution in carcinogenic activity. For PM10 media, dermal absorption implied the greatest potential cancer risk, followed by ingestion and inhalation. For bulk media, a moderate ecological risk for BaA, BbF and BaP was observed according to the risk quotient approach.
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Fan J, Cai Y, Yan Z, Li Y, Yao X. Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Chinese herbal medicines by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with graphene-functionalized nickel foam. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1694:463904. [PMID: 36870253 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.463904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
Graphene-functionalized nickel foam (NF) sorbent materials were prepared and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Thermogravimetric analysis. For the separation and detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in five Chinese medicine samples, namely dandelion, fructus aurantii, peppermint, mulberry leaf and embryo chrysanthemum, a method combining dispersive micro-solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was developed. Four conditions affecting the extraction efficiency, such as the type of desorption solvent, the amount of sorbent, the extraction time and the volume of water sample, were optimized. The results of the methodological validation showed that NF@SiO2@G was able to adsorb PAHs well and with good reproducibility. All analytes showed good linearity in the concentration range of 20-2000 ng/mL with coefficient of determination R2≥0.9956. The limit of detection was 0.98-13.34 ng/mL, and the limit of quantification ranged from 3.25 to 44.47 ng/mL. Both the intra-day and inter-day precision were lower than 15.46%, and the spiked recoveries were in the range of 75.5-118.4%. The total contents of the 16 PAHs contained in these five Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) were varied from 450 to 1557 µg/kg. The results indicated that the graphene-functionalized NF sorbent combined with GC-MS can effectively detect PAHs in CHMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahua Fan
- College of pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China.
| | - Ying Cai
- College of pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Zhihong Yan
- College of pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Yang Li
- College of pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Xuelian Yao
- College of pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China.
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Ramaiah P, Altalbawy FMA, Margiana R, Kumar NB, Kahar F, Jalil AT, Komariah A, Failoc-Rojas VE, Kadhim MM, Sivaraman R, Iswanto AH, Mustafa YF, Najafi ML. The association between prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and childhood intelligence: a systematic review of observational studies. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:19592-19601. [PMID: 36645600 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-25309-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during pregnancy has been associated with many adverse child health. However, the evidence on such associations with child brain development was not reviewed systemically. Therefore, in this study, we systemically reviewed the observational studies on prenatal exposure to PAHs and childhood intelligence quotient (IQ). The Meta-analyses Of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) guidelines were applied to perform this review. We systematically searched Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science for all relevant articles published in English until 15 October 2022. The quality of retrieved studies was evaluated based on the Gascon et al. method. We retrieved a total of 351 citations through the initial search, of which an overall of six articles ([Formula: see text] participants) were included in our final review. The quality assessment indicated that four studies had excellent and two studies had good quality. Three reviewed studies reported a significant negative association between prenatal exposure to PAHs and children's IQ. One study reported that exposure to PAHs combined with material hardship was associated with lower child IQ and one study indicated lower child IQ through lower LINE1 DNA methylation-related maternal exposure to PAHs. However, another study did not observe a significant association between prenatal PAH exposure and child IQ. Overall, our review indicated that exposure to PAHs during pregnancy has an adverse impact on childhood IQ.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Farag M A Altalbawy
- National Institute of Laser Enhanced Sciences (NILES), Cairo University, Giza, 12613, Egypt
- Department of Chemistry, University College of Duba, Tabuk University, Duba, 71911, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ria Margiana
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
- Master's Programme Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
- Dr. Soetomo General Academic Hospital, Surabaya, Indonesia
| | - N Bharath Kumar
- Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Vignan's Foundation for Science Technology and Research, Guntur, India
| | - Fitriani Kahar
- Medical Laboratory Technology, Poltekkes Kemenkes Semarang, Semarang, Indonesia
| | - Abduladheem Turki Jalil
- Medical Laboratories Techniques Department, Al-Mustaqbal University College, Babylon, Hilla, 51001, Iraq.
| | - Aan Komariah
- Educational Administration Department, Faculty of Educational Science, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia
| | | | - Mustafa M Kadhim
- Medical Laboratory Techniques Department, Al-Farahidi University, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - R Sivaraman
- Department of Mathematics, Dwaraka Doss Goverdhan Doss Vaishnav College, University of Madras, Arumbakkam, Chennai, India
| | - A Heri Iswanto
- Public Health Department, Faculty of Health Science, University of Pembangunan Nasional Veteran Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Yasser Fakri Mustafa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Mosul, Mosul, 41001, Iraq
| | - Moslem Lari Najafi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Cosmetic Products Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
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Zhang B, Peng Z, Lv J, Peng Q, He K, Xu H, Sun J, Shen Z. Gas Particle Partitioning of PAHs Emissions from Typical Solid Fuel Combustions as Well as Their Health Risk Assessment in Rural Guanzhong Plain, China. TOXICS 2023; 11:80. [PMID: 36668806 PMCID: PMC9863936 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11010080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Air pollutants from the incomplete combustion of rural solid fuels are seriously harmful to both air quality and human health. To quantify the health effects of different fuel-stove combinations, gas and particle partitioning of twenty-nine species of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emitted from seven fuel-stove combinations were examined in this study, and the benzo (a) pyrene toxicity equivalent (BaPeq) and cancer risks were estimated accordingly. The results showed that the gas phase PAHs (accounting for 68-78% of the total PAHs) had higher emission factors (EFs) than particulate ones. For all combustion combinations, pPAHs accounted for the highest proportion (84.5% to 99.3%) in both the gas and particulate phases, followed by aPAHs (0.63-14.7%), while the proportions of nPAHs and oPAHs were much lower (2-4 orders of magnitude) than pPAHs. For BaPeq, particulate phase PAHs dominated the BaPeq rather than gas ones, which may be due to the greater abundance of 5-ring particle PAHs. Gas and particle pPAHs were both predominant in the BaPeq, with proportions of 95.2-98.6% for all combustion combinations. Cancer risk results showed a descending order of bituminous coal combustion (0.003-0.05), biomass burning (0.002-0.01), and clean briquette coal combustion (10-5-0.001), indicating that local residents caused a severe health threat by solid fuel combustion (the threshold: 10-4). The results also highlighted that clean briquette coal could reduce cancer risks by 1-2 orders of magnitude compared to bulk coal and biomass. For oPAH, BcdPQ (6H-benzo(c,d)pyrene-6-one) had the highest cancer risk, ranging from 4.83 × 10-5 to 2.45 × 10-4, which were even higher than the total of aPAHs and nPAHs. The dramatically high toxicity and cancer risk of PAHs from solid fuel combustion strengthened the necessity and urgency of clean heating innovation in Guanzhong Plain and in similar places.
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Singh BP, Zughaibi TA, Alharthy SA, Al-Asmari AI, Rahman S. Statistical analysis, source apportionment, and toxicity of particulate- and gaseous-phase PAHs in the urban atmosphere. Front Public Health 2023; 10:1070663. [PMID: 36703843 PMCID: PMC9871548 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1070663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The concentrations of particulate and gaseous Polycyclic Hydrocarbons Carbon (PAHs) were determined in the urban atmosphere of Delhi in different seasons (winter, summer, and monsoon). Methodology The samples were collected using instrument air metric (particulate phase) and charcoal tube (gaseous phase) and analyzed through Gas chromatography. The principal component and correlation were used to identify the sources of particulate and gaseous PAHs during different seasons. Results and discussion The mean concentration of the sum of total PAHs (TPAHs) for particulate and gaseous phases at all the sites were found to be higher in the winter season (165.14 ± 50.44 ng/m3 and 65.73 ± 16.84 ng/m3) than in the summer season (134.08 ± 35.0 ng/m3 and 43.43 ± 9.59 ng/m3), whereas in the monsoon season the concentration was least (68.15 ± 18.25 ng/m3 and 37.63 1 13.62 ng/m3). The principal component analysis (PCA) results revealed that seasonal variations of PAHs accounted for over 86.9%, 84.5%, and 94.5% for the summer, monsoon, and winter seasons, respectively. The strong and positive correlation coefficients were observed between B(ghi)P and DahA (0.922), B(a)P and IcdP (0.857), and B(a)P and DahA (0.821), which indicated the common source emissions of PAHs. In addition to this, the correlation between Nap and Flu, Flu and Flt, B(a)P, and IcdP showed moderate to high correlation ranging from 0.68 to 0.75 for the particulate phase PAHs. The carcinogenic health risk values for gaseous and particulate phase PAHs at all sites were calculated to be 4.53 × 10-6, 2.36 × 10-5 for children, and 1.22 × 10-5, 6.35 × 10-5 for adults, respectively. The carcinogenic health risk for current results was found to be relatively higher than the prescribed standard of the Central Pollution Control Board, India (1.0 × 10-6).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupendra Pratap Singh
- Department of Environmental Studies, Deshbadhu College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
- Delhi School of Climate Change and Sustainability, Institute of Eminence, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Torki A. Zughaibi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Toxicology and Forensic Science Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saif A. Alharthy
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Toxicology and Forensic Science Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed I. Al-Asmari
- Toxicology and Forensic Science Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Laboratory Department, Ministry of Health, King Aziz Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shakilur Rahman
- Department of Medical Elementology and Toxicology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, New Delhi, India
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Barbosa F, Rocha BA, Souza MCO, Bocato MZ, Azevedo LF, Adeyemi JA, Santana A, Campiglia AD. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): Updated aspects of their determination, kinetics in the human body, and toxicity. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2023; 26:28-65. [PMID: 36617662 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2022.2164390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are legacy pollutants of considerable public health concern. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons arise from natural and anthropogenic sources and are ubiquitously present in the environment. Several PAHs are highly toxic to humans with associated carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. Further, more severe harmful effects on human- and environmental health have been attributed to the presence of high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs, that is PAHs with molecular mass greater than 300 Da. However, more research has been conducted using low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs). In addition, no HMW PAHs are on the priority pollutants list of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), which is limited to only 16 PAHs. However, limited analytical methodologies for separating and determining HMW PAHs and their potential isomers and lack of readily available commercial standards make research with these compounds challenging. Since most of the PAH kinetic data originate from animal studies, our understanding of the effects of PAHs on humans is still minimal. In addition, current knowledge of toxic effects after exposure to PAHs may be underrepresented since most investigations focused on exposure to a single PAH. Currently, information on PAH mixtures is limited. Thus, this review aims to critically assess the current knowledge of PAH chemical properties, their kinetic disposition, and toxicity to humans. Further, future research needs to improve and provide the missing information and minimize PAH exposure to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Barbosa
- Analytical and System Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Analyses, Toxicology and Food Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bruno A Rocha
- Analytical and System Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Analyses, Toxicology and Food Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marília C O Souza
- Analytical and System Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Analyses, Toxicology and Food Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mariana Z Bocato
- Analytical and System Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Analyses, Toxicology and Food Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lara F Azevedo
- Analytical and System Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Clinical Analyses, Toxicology and Food Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Joseph A Adeyemi
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
| | - Anthony Santana
- Department of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Andres D Campiglia
- Department of Chemistry, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Tabatabaei Z, Shamsedini N, Mohammadpour A, Baghapour MA, Hoseini M. Exposure assessment of children living in homes with hookah smoking parents to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: urinary level, exposure predictors, and risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:68667-68679. [PMID: 35543784 PMCID: PMC9091547 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-20589-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Children are extremely liable to indoor air pollutants as their physiology and a few metabolic pathways are different from those of adults. The present cross-sectional study aimed to assess exposure of children living with parents who use hookah tobacco smoke to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using a biomonitoring approach. The study was conducted on 25 children (7-13 years of age) exposed to hookah smoke at home and 25 unexposed age-matched children. Urinary levels of five metabolites of PAHs were quantified via headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Urinary malondialdehyde (MDA) was measured, as well. Information regarding the sociodemographic and lifestyle conditions was collected through interviews using managed questionnaires. The urinary 1-OH-NaP and 9-OH-Phe concentrations were respectively 1.7- and 4.6-folds higher in the case samples compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In addition, urinary MDA levels were 1.4 times higher in the exposed children than in the unexposed group, but the difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Increasing the consumption of grilled and meat food in the diet increased the participants' urinary 2-OH-Flu and 1-OH-Pyr levels, respectively. Moreover, sleeping in the living room instead of the bedroom at night was a significant predictor of high 1-OH-NaP and 2-OH-NaP concentrations in the children's urine. Overall, the findings confirmed that children living in their homes with hookah-smoking parents were significantly exposed to naphthalene and phenanthrene. Hence, implementing protective measures is critical to reduce the exposure of this group of children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeynab Tabatabaei
- Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Narges Shamsedini
- Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Fars Water and Wastewater Company, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Amin Mohammadpour
- Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Baghapour
- Research Center for Health Sciences, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hoseini
- Research Center for Health Sciences, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
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12
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Dat ND, Thuan NT, Hoang NTT, Tran HN, Hien TT, Tran KT, Chang MB. Characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air of a tropical mega-area, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam: concentration, distribution, gas/particle partitioning, potential sources and cancer risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:44054-44066. [PMID: 35122647 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-18859-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This is the first investigation on overall characteristics of 25 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (15 PAHs regulated by US-EPA (excluding naphthalene) and 16 PAHs recommended by the European Union) in ambient air of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Their levels, congener profiles, gas/particle partitioning, potential sources of atmospheric PAHs (gas and particulate phases), and lung cancer risks in the dry and rainy seasons were examined. The ∑25 PAH concentration in the dry and rainy seasons ranged from 8.79 to 33.2 ng m-3 and 26.0 to 60.0 ng m-3, respectively. Phenanthrene and Indeno[123-cd]pyrene were major contributors to gaseous and particulate PAHs, respectively, while benzo[c]fluorene was dominant component of the total BaP-TEQ. The ∑16 EU-PAH concentration contributed to 13 ± 2.7% of the total ∑ 25 PAH concentration; however, they composed over 99% of the total ∑ 25 PAH toxic concentration. Adsorption mainly governed the phase partitioning of PAHs because the slope of correlation between logKp and logP0L was steeper than - 1. Vehicular emission was the primary source of PAHs in two seasons; however, PAHs in the dry season were also originated from biomass burning. Assessment of lung cancer risk showed that children possibly exposed to potential lung cancer risk via inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Duy Dat
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 700000
| | - Ngo Thi Thuan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, International University, Linh TrungWard, Quarter 6Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
- Vietnam National University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
| | - Nhung Thi-Tuyet Hoang
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 700000
| | - Hiep Ngoc Tran
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 700000
| | - To Thi Hien
- Vietnam National University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Faculty of Environmental Science, University of Science, Ward 4, District 5, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Khoi Tien Tran
- Department of Environmental Engineering, International University, Linh TrungWard, Quarter 6Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Vietnam National University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Moo Been Chang
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Central University (NCU), Zhongli, Taiwan, 32001.
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13
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Adeola AO, Nsibande SA, Osano AM, Maghanga JK, Naudé Y, Forbes PBC. Analysis of gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from cooking devices in selected rural and urban kitchens in Bomet and Narok counties of Kenya. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:435. [PMID: 35578125 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10062-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Traditional combustion devices and fuels such as charcoal, wood and biomass, are widely utilised in rural and urban households in Africa. Incomplete combustion can generate air pollutants which are of human toxicological importance, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In this study, portable multi-channel polydimethylsiloxane rubber traps were used to sample gas phase emissions from cooking devices used in urban and rural households in Bomet and Narok counties of Kenya. A wide range of total PAH concentrations was found in samples collected (0.82 - 173.69 µg/m3), which could be attributed to the differences in fuel type, combustion device, climate, and nature of households. Wood combustion using the 3-stone device had the highest average total PAH concentration of ~71 µg/m3. Narok had higher indoor total gas phase PAH concentrations averaging 35.88 µg/m3 in urban and 70.84 µg/m3 in rural households, compared to Bomet county (2.91 µg/m3 in urban and 9.09 µg/m3 in rural households). Ambient total gas phase PAH concentrations were more similar (Narok: 1.26 - 6.28 µg/m3 and Bomet: 2.44 - 6.30 µg/m3). Although the 3-stone device and burning of wood accounted for higher PAH emissions, the charcoal burning jiko stove produced the highest toxic equivalence quotient. Monitoring of PAHs emitted by these cooking devices and fuels is critical to public health and sustainable pollution mitigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A O Adeola
- Chemistry Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - S A Nsibande
- Chemistry Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - A M Osano
- Department of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Maasai Mara University, Narok, Kenya
| | - J K Maghanga
- School of Science and Informatics, Taita Taveta University, Voi, Kenya
| | - Y Naudé
- Chemistry Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - P B C Forbes
- Chemistry Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
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Jakovljević I, Šimić I, Mendaš G, Sever Štrukil Z, Žužul S, Gluščić V, Godec R, Pehnec G, Bešlić I, Milinković A, Bakija Alempijević S, Šala M, Ogrizek M, Frka S. Pollution levels and deposition processes of airborne organic pollutants over the central Adriatic area: Temporal variabilities and source identification. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2021; 172:112873. [PMID: 34428622 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
First data on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-aromatic compounds (NACs) in aerosols as well as of PAHs, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and NACs in bulk and wet atmospheric deposition samples were simultaneously obtained during 6-month-long field campaign at the costal central Adriatic area. Special attention was given to open-fire biomass burning episodes as extreme events common for the overall Mediterranean coastal area in order to gain a better understanding of the atmospheric variabilities and potential sources of trace organic pollutants in coastal environments. Diesel and gasoline combustion related to land and maritime traffic as well as occasional open-fire episodes (forest fires) were found to be the dominant pollution sources of PAHs in PM10 particles. NACs were determined almost exclusively in samples affected by biomass burning episodes. Open-fire episodes had a strong contribution to the overall NACs atmospheric deposition fluxes. Several chlorinated congeners of PCBs were predominantly contributed in deposition samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Jakovljević
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Iva Šimić
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Gordana Mendaš
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Silva Žužul
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Valentina Gluščić
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ranka Godec
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Gordana Pehnec
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivan Bešlić
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Andrea Milinković
- Laboratory for Marine and Atmospheric Biogeochemistry, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Saranda Bakija Alempijević
- Laboratory for Marine and Atmospheric Biogeochemistry, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Martin Šala
- Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, National Institute of Chemistry, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Monika Ogrizek
- Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, National Institute of Chemistry, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sanja Frka
- Laboratory for Marine and Atmospheric Biogeochemistry, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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15
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Trung NT, Anh HQ, Tue NM, Suzuki G, Takahashi S, Tanabe S, Khai NM, Hong TT, Dau PT, Thuy PC, Tuyen LH. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in airborne particulate matter samples from Hanoi, Vietnam: Particle size distribution, aryl hydrocarbon ligand receptor activity, and implication for cancer risk assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 280:130720. [PMID: 33964743 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations and profiles of unsubstituted and methylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs and Me-PAHs) were analyzed in airborne particulate matter (PM) samples collected from high-traffic roads in Hanoi urban area. Levels of PAHs and Me-PAHs ranged from 210 to 660 (average 420) ng/m3 in total PM, and these pollutants were mainly associated with fine particles (PM2.5) rather than coarser ones (PM > 10 and PM10). Proportions of high-molecular-weight compounds (i.e., 5- and 6-ring) increased with decreasing particle size. Benzo[b+k]fluoranthene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, and benzo[ghi]perylene were the most predominant compounds in the PM2.5 samples. In all the samples, Me-PAHs were less abundant than unsubstituted PAHs. The PAH-CALUX assays were applied to evaluate aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligand activities in crude extracts and different fractions from the PM samples. Benzo[a]pyrene equivalents (BaP-EQs) derived by the PAH-CALUX assays for low polar fractions (mainly PAHs and Me-PAHs) ranged from 300 to 840 ng/m3, which were more consistent with theoretical values derived by using PAH-CALUX relative potencies (270-710 ng/m3) rather than conventional toxic equivalency factor-based values (22-69 ng/m3). Concentrations of PAHs and Me-PAHs highly correlated with bioassay-derived BaP-EQs. AhR-mediated activities of more polar compounds and interaction effects between PAH-related compounds were observed. By using PAH-CALUX BaP-EQs, the ILCR values ranged from 1.0 × 10-4 to 2.8 × 10-4 for adults and from 6.4 × 10-5 to 1.8 × 10-4 for children. Underestimation of cancer risk can be eliminated by using effect-directed method (e.g., PAH-CALUX) rather than chemical-specific approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Thanh Trung
- Faculty of Environmental Science, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Viet Nam
| | - Hoang Quoc Anh
- Center of Advanced Technology for the Environment (CATE), Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, 3-5-7 Tarumi, Matsuyama, 790-8566, Japan
| | - Nguyen Minh Tue
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama, 790-8577, Japan; Centre for Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (CETASD), University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Viet Nam
| | - Go Suzuki
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), Tsukuba, 305-8506, Japan
| | - Shin Takahashi
- Center of Advanced Technology for the Environment (CATE), Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, 3-5-7 Tarumi, Matsuyama, 790-8566, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Tanabe
- Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama, 790-8577, Japan
| | - Nguyen Manh Khai
- Faculty of Environmental Science, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Viet Nam
| | - Tran Thi Hong
- Faculty of Environmental Science, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Viet Nam
| | - Pham Thi Dau
- Faculty of Biology, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Viet Nam
| | - Pham Chau Thuy
- Faculty of Environment, Vietnam National University of Agriculture, Trau Quy, Gia Lam, Hanoi, 12400, Viet Nam
| | - Le Huu Tuyen
- Centre for Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (CETASD), University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Viet Nam.
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16
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Sopian NA, Jalaludin J, Abu Bakar S, Hamedon TR, Latif MT. Exposure to Particulate PAHs on Potential Genotoxicity and Cancer Risk among School Children Living Near the Petrochemical Industry. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18052575. [PMID: 33806616 PMCID: PMC7967639 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the association of exposure to particle-bound (PM2.5) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with potential genotoxicity and cancer risk among children living near the petrochemical industry and comparative populations in Malaysia. PM2.5 samples were collected using a low-volume sampler for 24 h at three primary schools located within 5 km of the industrial area and three comparative schools more than 20 km away from any industrial activity. A gas chromatography-mass spectrometer was used to determine the analysis of 16 United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) priority PAHs. A total of 205 children were randomly selected to assess the DNA damage in buccal cells, employing the comet assay. Total PAHs measured in exposed and comparative schools varied, respectively, from 61.60 to 64.64 ng m-3 and from 5.93 to 35.06 ng m-3. The PAH emission in exposed schools was contributed mainly by traffic and industrial emissions, dependent on the source apportionment. The 95th percentiles of the incremental lifetime cancer risk estimated using Monte Carlo simulation revealed that the inhalation risk for the exposed children and comparative populations was 2.22 × 10-6 and 2.95 × 10-7, respectively. The degree of DNA injury was substantially more severe among the exposed children relative to the comparative community. This study reveals that higher exposure to PAHs increases the risk of genotoxic effects and cancer among children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nor Ashikin Sopian
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Juliana Jalaludin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +603-97692401
| | - Suhaili Abu Bakar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Titi Rahmawati Hamedon
- Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Mohd Talib Latif
- Department of Earth Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia;
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