Graphene oxide induced dynamic changes of autophagy-lysosome pathway and cell apoptosis via TFEB dysregulation in F98 cells

Exploring the environmental factor fulvic acid attenuates the ecotoxicity of graphene oxide under food delivery exposure

There is limited understanding of nanoparticle potential ecotoxicity, particularly regarding the influence of environmental factors that can be transferred through the food chain. Here, we assessed the transfer behavior and the ecotoxicity of commercially manufactured graphene oxide nano-materials (GO, <100 nm) in a food chain perspective spanning from Escherichia coli (E. coli) to Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) under simulated environmental conditions. Our findings revealed that E. coli preyed upon GO, subsequently transferring it to C. elegans, with a discernible distribution of GO observed in the digestive system and reproductive system. Accumulated GO generated serious ecological consequences for the higher level of the food chain (C. elegans). More importantly, GO and the resulting injurious effects of germ cells could be transferred to the next generation, indicating that GO exposure could cause genetic damage across generations. Previous research has demonstrated that GO can induce degradation of both the inner and outer cell membranes of E. coli, which is then transmitted to C. elegans through the food chain. Additionally, fulvic acid (FA) possesses various functional groups that enable interaction with nanomaterials. Our findings indicated that these interactions could mitigate ecotoxicity caused by GO exposure via food delivery, and this approach could be extended to modify GO in a way that significantly reduced its toxic effects without compromising performance. These results highlighted how environmental factors could attenuate ecological risks associated with nanomaterial transmission through the food chain.