1
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Slassi S, Aarjane M, Amine A. Synthesis, spectroscopic characterization (FT-IR, NMR, UV-Vis), DFT study, antibacterial and antioxidant in vitro investigations of 4,6-bis((E)-1-((3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)propyl)imino)ethyl)benzene-1,3-diol. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.132457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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2
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Han Mİ, Küçükgüzel ŞG. Thioethers: An Overview. Curr Drug Targets 2022; 23:170-219. [DOI: 10.2174/1389450122666210614121237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
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Spreading rapidly in recent years, cancer has become one of the causes of the highest mor-tality rates after cardiovascular diseases. The reason for cancer development is still not clearly under-stood despite enormous research activities in this area. Scientists are now working on the biology of cancer, especially on the root cause of cancer development. The aim is to treat the cancer disease and thus cure the patients. The continuing efforts for the development of novel molecules as potential anti-cancer agents are essential for this purpose. The main aim of this review was to present a survey on the medicinal chemistry of thioethers and provide practical data on their cytotoxicities against various cancer cell lines. The research articles published between 2001-2020 were consulted to pre-pare this review article; however, patent literature has not been included. The thioether-containing heterocyclic compounds may emerge as a new class of potent and effective anti-cancer agents in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. İhsan Han
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erciyes University, Talas, 38050, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Ş. Güniz Küçükgüzel
- Vocational School of Health Services, Fenerbahçe University, Ataşehir, 34758, İstanbul, Turkey
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3
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Pes K, Friese A, Cox CJ, Laizé V, Fernández I. Biochemical and molecular responses of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) to short-term exposure to three commonly prescribed drugs. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 168:105309. [PMID: 33798995 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals represent a group of emerging contaminants. The short-term effect (3 and 7 days) of warfarin (1 and 10 mg L-1), dexamethasone (0.392 and 3.92 mg L-1) and imidazole (0.013 and 0.13 mg L-1) exposure was evaluated on mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Total antioxidant status, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase enzyme activities, and the expression of genes involved in the xenobiotic response (ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (abcb1) and several nuclear receptor family J (nr1j) isoforms), were evaluated. All nr1j isoforms are suggested to be the xenobiotic receptor orthologs of the NR1I family. All drugs increased GPx activity and altered the expression of particular nr1j isoforms. Dexamethasone exposure also decreased abcb1 expression. These findings raised some concerns regarding the release of these pharmaceuticals into the aquatic environment. Thus, further studies might be needed to perform an accurate environmental risk assessment of these 3 poorly studied drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Pes
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Annika Friese
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Cymon J Cox
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Aquaculture Research Center, Agro-Technological Institute of Castilla y León (ITACyL), Ctra. Arévalo, s/n. 40196 Zamarramala, Segovia, Spain.
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4
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Ali AAA, Lee YR, Wu AT, Yadav VK, Yu DS, Huang HS. Structure-based strategies for synthesis, lead optimization and biological evaluation of N-substituted anthra[1,2-c][1,2,5]thiadiazole-6,11-dione derivatives as potential multi-target anticancer agents. ARAB J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2020.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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5
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Chen TC, Yu DS, Chen SJ, Chen CL, Lee CC, Hsieh YY, Chang LC, Guh JH, Lin JJ, Huang HS. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of tetracyclic azafluorenone derivatives with topoisomerase I inhibitory properties as potential anticancer agents. ARAB J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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6
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Synthesis and biological evaluation of anthra[1,9-cd]pyrazol-6(2H)-one scaffold derivatives as potential anticancer agents. ARAB J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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7
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Chen X, Tang WJ, Shi JB, Liu MM, Liu XH. Therapeutic strategies for targeting telomerase in cancer. Med Res Rev 2019; 40:532-585. [PMID: 31361345 DOI: 10.1002/med.21626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Telomere and telomerase play important roles in abnormal cell proliferation, metastasis, stem cell maintenance, and immortalization in various cancers. Therefore, designing of drugs targeting telomerase and telomere is of great significance. Over the past two decades, considerable knowledge regarding telomere and telomerase has been accumulated, which provides theoretical support for the design of therapeutic strategies such as telomere elongation. Therefore, the development of telomere-based therapies such as nucleoside analogs, non-nucleoside small molecules, antisense technology, ribozymes, and dominant negative human telomerase reverse transcriptase are being prioritized for eradicating a majority of tumors. While the benefits of telomere-based therapies are obvious, there is a need to address the limitations of various therapeutic strategies to improve the possibility of clinical applications. In this study, current knowledge of telomere and telomerase is discussed, and therapeutic strategies based on recent research are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen-Jian Tang
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Bo Shi
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming Ming Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin-Hua Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People's Republic of China
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Fann LY, Chen Y, Chu DC, Weng SJ, Chu HC, Wu ATH, Lee JF, Ali AAA, Chen TC, Huang HS, Ma KH. Identification and preclinical evaluation of the small molecule, NSC745887, for treating glioblastomas via suppressing DcR3-associated signaling pathways. Oncotarget 2017; 9:11922-11937. [PMID: 29552282 PMCID: PMC5844718 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.23714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The small-molecule naphtha [2,3-f]quinoxaline-7,12-dione (NSC745887) can effectively inhibit the proliferation of various cancers by trapping DNA-topoisomerase cleavage. The aim of this study was to elucidate cellular responses of NSC745887 in human glioblastoma multiforme (GBM, U118MG and U87MG cells) and investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms. NSC745887 reduced the cell survival rate and increased the sub-G1 population in dose- and time-dependent manners in GBM cells. Moreover, NSC745887 increased expression of γH2AX and caused DNA fragmentation leading to DNA damage. Furthermore, Annexin V/propidium iodide and Br-dTP staining showed the apoptotic effect of NSC745887 in GBM cells. DNA repair proteins of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM), ATM and Rad3-related, and decoy receptor 3 also decreased with NSC745887 treatment. In addition, NSC745887 caused apoptosis by the caspase-8/9-caspase-3-poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cascade. An in vivo study indicated that NSC745887 suppressed the [18F]-FDG-specific uptake value in brain tumors. Histological staining also indicated a decrease in Ki-67 and increases in γH2AX and cleaved caspase-3 in the brain tumor area. These data provide preclinical evidence for NSC745887 as a potential new small molecule drug for managing glioblastomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Yun Fann
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of Nursing and Department of Neurosurgery, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Graduate Institute for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ying Chen
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Da-Chen Chu
- Department of Nursing and Department of Neurosurgery, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shao-Ju Weng
- Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Heng-Cheng Chu
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Alexander T H Wu
- The PhD Program for Translational Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jiann-Fong Lee
- Graduate Institute for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ahmed Atef Ahmed Ali
- Graduate Institute for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Tsung-Chih Chen
- Graduate Institute for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsu-Shan Huang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Graduate Institute for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Kuo-Hsing Ma
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.,Department of Biology and Anatomy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
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9
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Shagufta, Ahmad I. Recent insight into the biological activities of synthetic xanthone derivatives. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 116:267-280. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.03.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2015] [Revised: 03/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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10
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Lee YR, Chen TC, Lee CC, Chen CL, Ahmed Ali AA, Tikhomirov A, Guh JH, Yu DS, Huang HS. Ring fusion strategy for synthesis and lead optimization of sulfur-substituted anthra[1,2-c][1,2,5]thiadiazole-6,11-dione derivatives as promising scaffold of antitumor agents. Eur J Med Chem 2015; 102:661-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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11
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Onder Nİ, İncesu Z, Özkay Y. Synthesis and evaluation of new dithiocarbamic acid 6,11-dioxo-6,11-dihydro-1H-anthra[1,2-d]-imidazol-2-yl methyl esters. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2015; 348:508-17. [PMID: 25996310 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201500063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
A novel series of dithiocarbamic acid 6,11-dioxo-6,11-dihydro-1H-anthra[1,2-d]imidazol-2-yl methyl esters were synthesized and their cytotoxic and apoptotic activities were evaluated on HeLa cells. Some of these compounds showed potent cytotoxic activities and are able to induce the apoptosis mechanism in this cell line. Especially, 2c, 2d, and 2f had a high cytotoxic activity with an IC50 value of 8 or 10 μM at 24 h. These three compounds also induced HeLa cell apoptosis as compared to mitoxantrone. Particularly, 3 μM of 2f induced a high rate of early apoptotic cells (12.9%) at 6 h whereas mitoxantrone induced early apoptosis (5.5%) at 24 h. Compound 2c demonstrated a high ADP/ATP ratio (9.31) in HeLa cells at 12 h compared to mitoxantrone or other compounds, suggesting that 2c might induce HeLa cell apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway. Caspase-3 activity started to increase after treatment with 6 μM of 2c for 6 h, and the maximal peak of activity was obtained at 12 h of incubation time. All three compounds were found to be potent apoptotic inducers compared to mitoxantrone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur İpek Onder
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey
| | - Zerrin İncesu
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey
| | - Yusuf Özkay
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey
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12
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Chen YF, Lin YC, Morris-Natschke SL, Wei CF, Shen TC, Lin HY, Hsu MH, Chou LC, Zhao Y, Kuo SC, Lee KH, Huang LJ. Synthesis and SAR studies of novel 6,7,8-substituted 4-substituted benzyloxyquinolin-2(1H)-one derivatives for anticancer activity. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 172:1195-221. [PMID: 25363404 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE 4-Phenylquinolin-2(1H)-one (4-PQ) derivatives can induce cancer cell apoptosis. Additional new 4-PQ analogs were investigated as more effective, less toxic antitumour agents. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Forty-five 6,7,8-substituted 4-substituted benzyloxyquinolin-2(1H)-one derivatives were synthesized. Antiproliferative activities were evaluated using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliun bromide assay and structure-activity relationship correlations were established. Compounds 9b, 9c, 9e and 11e were also evaluated against the National Cancer Institute-60 human cancer cell line panel. Hoechst 33258 and Annexin V-FITC/PI staining assays were used to detect apoptosis, while inhibition of microtubule polymerization was assayed by fluorescence microscopy. Effects on the cell cycle were assessed by flow cytometry and on apoptosis-related proteins (active caspase-3, -8 and -9, procaspase-3, -8, -9, PARP, Bid, Bcl-xL and Bcl-2) by Western blotting. KEY RESULTS Nine 6,7,8-substituted 4-substituted benzyloxyquinolin-2(1H)-one derivatives (7e, 8e, 9b, 9c, 9e, 10c, 10e, 11c and 11e) displayed high potency against HL-60, Hep3B, H460, and COLO 205 cancer cells (IC₅₀ < 1 μM) without affecting Detroit 551 normal human cells (IC₅₀ > 50 μM). Particularly, compound 11e exhibited nanomolar potency against COLO 205 cancer cells. Mechanistic studies indicated that compound 11e disrupted microtubule assembly and induced G2/M arrest, polyploidy and apoptosis via the intrinsic and extrinsic signalling pathways. Activation of JNK could play a role in TRAIL-induced COLO 205 apoptosis. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS New quinolone derivatives were identified as potential pro-apoptotic agents. Compound 11e could be a promising lead compound for future antitumour agent development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Fong Chen
- The Ph.D. Program for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, China Medical University and Academia Sinica, Taichung, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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2-Butyl-4-chloroimidazole based substituted piperazine-thiosemicarbazone hybrids as potent inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:5520-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.09.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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14
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Chen CL, Liu FL, Lee CC, Chen TC, Chang WW, Guh JH, Ahmed Ali AA, Chang DM, Huang HS. Ring fusion strategy for the synthesis of anthra[2,3-d]oxazole-2-thione-5,10-dione homologues as DNA topoisomerase inhibitors and as antitumor agents. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 87:30-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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15
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Thiazolidine-2,4-diones as multi-targeted scaffold in medicinal chemistry: Potential anticancer agents. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 87:814-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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16
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Tikhomirov AS, Shchekotikhin AE, Luzikov YN, Korolev AM, Preobrazhenskaya MN. Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling/heterocyclization domino reaction: facile access to anthra[2,3-b]furan-5,10-dione scaffold. Tetrahedron 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2014.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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17
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Chen TC, Wu CL, Lee CC, Chen CL, Yu DS, Huang HS. Structure-based hybridization, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel tetracyclic heterocyclic azathioxanthone analogues as potential antitumor agents. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 103:615-27. [PMID: 25799376 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.09.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
A series of tetracyclic heterocyclic azathioxanthones were synthesized and evaluated for cell proliferations, topoisomerase inhibitions, and NCI-60 cell panel assay, respectively. Compounds 5, 7, 8, 16, and 19 were selected for topoisomerase assay after MTT assay. 7 not only showed cytotoxic effect (IC50 = 2.84 ± 0.64 μM) in PC-3 cells but also revealed topoisomerases inhibition with IC50 (10-25 μM) and increased apoptotic cleavage of PARP and caspase 3 activity. The overall of novel azathioxanthones with different cytostatic and cytotoxic activities should be further developed as new potential candidates for anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Chih Chen
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Lun Wu
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Chung Lee
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Liang Chen
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan
| | - Dah-Shyong Yu
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan; Uro-Oncology Laboratory, Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei 114, Taiwan.
| | - Hsu-Shan Huang
- Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan.
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