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Li C, Han X, Yan Q, Ji Y, Zhang R, Yuan D, Yang F, Wang J, Wu M, Zhou J. Design and Synthesis of Dual-Target Inhibitors Targeting Androgen Receptors and Glucocorticoid Receptors to Overcome Antiandrogen Resistance in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. J Med Chem 2024; 67:3419-3436. [PMID: 38385428 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) antagonists play important roles in the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) upregulation leads to drug resistance for clinically used antiandrogens. Therefore, blocking AR/GR signaling simultaneously has become an efficient strategy to overcome the drug resistance of CRPC. Our previous work indicated that Z19 could inhibit the activity of both AR and GR. Herein, we optimized the structure of Z19 and identified GA32 as a potent AR/GR dual inhibitor. GA32 efficiently reduced the mRNA and protein levels of AR/GR downstream genes. GA32 efficiently inhibited the proliferation of enzalutamide resistance CRPC both in vitro and in vivo. GA32 could directly bind to AR and GR, and the predicted binding modes for GA32 with AR/GR suggested that GA32 binds to the AR or GR hormone binding pocket. This work provides a potential lead compound with dual AR/GR inhibitory activity to conquer the drug resistance of CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenfan Li
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoli Han
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, P. R. China
| | - Qiuxia Yan
- Department of Urology, Huizhou First People's Hospital, Huizhou, Guangdong 516003, P. R. China
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, P. R. China
| | - Yang Ji
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, P. R. China
| | - Rongyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, P. R. China
| | - Dazhong Yuan
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, P. R. China
| | - Fulian Yang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, P. R. China
| | - Jianlong Wang
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, P. R. China
| | - Meng Wu
- Center for Drug Research and Evaluation, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, P. R. China
| | - Jinming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, P. R. China
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2
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Chai X, Hu XP, Wang XY, Wang HT, Pang JP, Zhou WF, Liao JN, Shan LH, Xu XH, Xu L, Xia HG, Hou TJ, Li D. Computationally guided discovery of novel non-steroidal AR-GR dual antagonists demonstrating potency against antiandrogen resistance. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2023; 44:1500-1518. [PMID: 36639570 PMCID: PMC10310723 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-022-01038-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
As a major class of medicine for treating the lethal type of castration-resistant prostate cancer (PCa), long-term use of androgen receptor (AR) antagonists commonly leads to antiandrogen resistance. When AR signaling pathway is blocked by AR-targeted therapy, glucocorticoid receptor (GR) could compensate for AR function especially at the late stage of PCa. AR-GR dual antagonist is expected to be a good solution for this situation. Nevertheless, no effective non-steroidal AR-GR dual antagonist has been reported so far. In this study, an AR-GR dual binder H18 was first discovered by combining structure-based virtual screening and biological evaluation. Then with the aid of computationally guided design, the AR-GR dual antagonist HD57 was finally identified with antagonistic activity towards both AR (IC50 = 0.394 μM) and GR (IC50 = 17.81 μM). Moreover, HD57 could effectively antagonize various clinically relevant AR mutants. Further molecular dynamics simulation provided more atomic insights into the mode of action of HD57. Our research presents an efficient and rational strategy for discovering novel AR-GR dual antagonists, and the new scaffold provides important clues for the development of novel therapeutics for castration-resistant PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Chai
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
- Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xue-Ping Hu
- Institute of Molecular Sciences and Engineering, Institute of Frontier and Interdisciplinary Science, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Xin-Yue Wang
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hua-Ting Wang
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jin-Ping Pang
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wen-Fang Zhou
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jia-Ning Liao
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lu-Hu Shan
- Institute of Cancer Research and Basic Medical Sciences of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cancer Hospital of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Xu
- Institute of Cancer Research and Basic Medical Sciences of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cancer Hospital of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang Cancer Hospital, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lei Xu
- Department of Biochemistry & Research Center of Clinical Pharmacy of The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hong-Guang Xia
- Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China.
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou, 213001, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Ting-Jun Hou
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Dan Li
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China.
- Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, Jinhua, 321099, Zhejiang, China.
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3
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Peřina M, Kiss A, Mernyák E, Mada L, Schneider G, Jorda R. Synthesis of hydrocortisone esters targeting androgen and glucocorticoid receptors in prostate cancer in vitro. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2023; 229:106269. [PMID: 36773737 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2023.106269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Androgen and glucocorticoid receptors have been recently described as key players in processes related to prostate cancer and mainly androgen receptor's inactivation was shown as an effective way for the prostate cancer treatment. Unfortunately, androgen deprivation therapy usually loses its effectivity and the disease frequently progresses into castration-resistant prostate cancer with poor prognosis. The role of the glucocorticoid receptor is associated with the mechanism of resistance; therefore, pharmacological targeting of glucocorticoid receptor in combination with antiandrogen treatment was shown as an alternative approach in the prostate cancer treatment. We introduce here the synthesis of novel 17α- and/or 21-ester or carbamate derivatives of hydrocortisone and evaluation of their biological activity towards androgen and glucocorticoid receptors in different prostate cancer cell lines. A 17α-butyryloxy-21-(alkyl)carbamoyloxy derivative 14 was found to diminish the transcriptional activity of both receptors (in single-digit micromolar range), with comparable potency to enzalutamide towards the androgen receptor, but weaker potency compared to mifepristone towards the glucocorticoid receptor. Lead compound inhibited proliferation and the formation of cell colonies in both androgen and glucocortiocid receptors-positive prostate cancer cell lines in low micromolar concentrations. Candidate compound 14 showed to interact with both receptors in cells and inhibited the translocation of receptors to nucleus and their activation phoshorylation. Moreover, binding to receptor's ligand binding domains was assessed by molecular modelling. Lead compound also induced the accumulation of cells in G1 phase and its combination with enzalutamide was shown to be more effective than enzalutamide alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miroslav Peřina
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Anita Kiss
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, 17720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Erzsébet Mernyák
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, 17720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Lukáš Mada
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Gyula Schneider
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, 17720 Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Radek Jorda
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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Wu M, Zhang R, Zhang Z, Zhang N, Li C, Xie Y, Xia H, Huang F, Zhang R, Liu M, Li X, Cen S, Zhou J. Selective androgen receptor degrader (SARD) to overcome antiandrogen resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer. eLife 2023; 12:70700. [PMID: 36656639 PMCID: PMC9901937 DOI: 10.7554/elife.70700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), clinical resistances such as androgen receptor (AR) mutation, AR overexpression, and AR splice variants (ARVs) limit the effectiveness of second-generation antiandrogens (SGAs). Several strategies have been implemented to develop novel antiandrogens to circumvent the occurring resistance. Here, we found and identified a bifunctional small molecule Z15, which is both an effective AR antagonist and a selective AR degrader. Z15 could directly interact with the ligand-binding domain (LBD) and activation function-1 region of AR, and promote AR degradation through the proteasome pathway. In vitro and in vivo studies showed that Z15 efficiently suppressed AR, AR mutants and ARVs transcription activity, downregulated mRNA and protein levels of AR downstream target genes, thereby overcoming AR LBD mutations, AR amplification, and ARVs-induced SGAs resistance in CRPC. In conclusion, our data illustrate the synergistic importance of AR antagonism and degradation in advanced prostate cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Wu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
- Department of Medical Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Complex Severe and Rare Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Rongyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal UniversityJinhuaChina
| | - Zixiong Zhang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Ning Zhang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Chenfan Li
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal UniversityJinhuaChina
| | - Yongli Xie
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Haoran Xia
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Fangjiao Huang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal UniversityJinhuaChina
| | - Ruoying Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal UniversityJinhuaChina
| | - Ming Liu
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Shan Cen
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Jinming Zhou
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical SciencesBeijingChina
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal UniversityJinhuaChina
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5
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Wang Y, Chen J, Wu Z, Ding W, Gao S, Gao Y, Xu C. Mechanisms of enzalutamide resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer and therapeutic strategies to overcome it. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 178:239-261. [PMID: 33150960 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the second most common malignancy in men and androgen deprivation therapy is the first-line therapy. However, most cases will eventually develop castration-resistant prostate cancer after androgen deprivation therapy treatment. Enzalutamide is a second-generation androgen receptor antagonist approved by the Food and Drug Administration to treat patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Unfortunately, patients receiving enzalutamide treatment will ultimately develop resistance via various complicated mechanisms. This review examines the emerging information on these resistance mechanisms, including androgen receptor-related signalling pathways, glucocorticoid receptor-related pathways and metabolic effects. Notably, lineage plasticity and phenotype switching, gene polymorphisms and the relationship between microRNAs and drug resistance are addressed. Furthermore, potential therapeutic strategies for enzalutamide-resistant castration-resistant prostate cancer treatment are suggested, which can help discover more effective and specific regimens to overcome enzalutamide resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Management, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiyuan Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Management, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhengjie Wu
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weihong Ding
- Department of Urology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shen Gao
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Management, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chuanliang Xu
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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6
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Ma Z, Xiang X, Li S, Xie P, Gong Q, Goh BC, Wang L. Targeting hypoxia-inducible factor-1, for cancer treatment: Recent advances in developing small-molecule inhibitors from natural compounds. Semin Cancer Biol 2020; 80:379-390. [PMID: 33002608 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Rapid progress in molecular cancer biology coupled with the discovery of novel oncology drugs has opened new horizons for cancer target discovery. As one of the crucial signaling pathways related to tumorigenesis, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) coordinates the activity of many transcription factors and their downstream molecules that impact tumor growth and metastasis. Accumulating evidence suggests that the transcriptional responses to acute hypoxia are mainly attributable to HIF-1α. Moreover, the overexpression of HIF-1α in several solid cancers has been found to be strongly associated with poor prognosis. Thus, pharmacological targeting of the HIF-1 signaling pathways has been considered as a new strategy for cancer therapy in the recent years. Although over the past decade, tremendous efforts have been made in preclinical studies to develop new HIF-1 inhibitors from natural products (reservoirs of novel therapeutic agents), to date, these efforts have not been successfully translated into clinically available treatments. In this review, we provide new insights into the bio-pharmacological considerations for selecting natural compounds as potential HIF-1 inhibitors to accelerate anti-cancer drug development. In addition, we highlighted the importance of assessing the dependency of cancer on HIF1A to shortlist cancer types as suitable disease models. This may subsequently lead to new paradigms for discovering more HIF-1 inhibitors derived from natural products and facilitate the development of potent therapeutic agents targeting specific cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaowu Ma
- School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China; The First School of Clinical Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023k, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Xiang
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Shiya Li
- Dyson School of Design Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Peng Xie
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China; China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Quan Gong
- School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023, China; The First School of Clinical Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei 434023k, China.
| | - Boon-Cher Goh
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117600, Singapore; Department of Haematology-Oncology, National University Cancer Institute, Singapore 119228, Singapore; Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117599, Singapore.
| | - Lingzhi Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117600, Singapore; Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117599, Singapore.
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Niemira M, Borowa-Mazgaj B, Bader SB, Moszyńska A, Ratajewski M, Karaś K, Kwaśniewski M, Krętowski A, Mazerska Z, Hammond EM, Skwarska A. Anticancer Imidazoacridinone C-1311 is Effective in Androgen-Dependent and Androgen-Independent Prostate Cancer Cells. Biomedicines 2020; 8:E292. [PMID: 32825120 PMCID: PMC7555468 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8090292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) plays a critical role in prostate cancer (PCa) development and metastasis. Thus, blocking AR activity and its downstream signaling constitutes a major strategy for PCa treatment. Here, we report on the potent anti-PCa activity of a small-molecule imidazoacridinone, C-1311. In AR-positive PCa cells, C-1311 was found to inhibit the transcriptional activity of AR, uncovering a novel mechanism that may be relevant for its anticancer effect. Mechanistically, C-1311 decreased the AR binding to the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) promoter, reduced the PSA protein level, and, as shown by transcriptome sequencing, downregulated numerous AR target genes. Importantly, AR-negative PCa cells were also sensitive to C-1311, suggesting a promising efficacy in the androgen-independent PCa sub-type. Irrespective of AR status, C-1311 induced DNA damage, arrested cell cycle progression, and induced apoptosis. RNA sequencing indicated significant differences in the transcriptional response to C-1311 between the PCa cells. Gene ontology analysis showed that in AR-dependent PCa cells, C-1311 mainly affected the DNA damage response pathways. In contrast, in AR-independent PCa cells, C-1311 targeted the cellular metabolism and inhibited the genes regulating glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Together, these results indicate that C-1311 warrants further development for the treatment of PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Niemira
- Clinical Research Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Barbara Borowa-Mazgaj
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA;
| | - Samuel B. Bader
- Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (S.B.B.); (E.M.H.)
| | - Adrianna Moszyńska
- Department of Biology and Pharmaceutical Botany, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-416 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Marcin Ratajewski
- Laboratory of Epigenetics, Institute of Medical Biology PAS, 93-232 Lodz, Poland; (M.R.); (K.K.)
| | - Kaja Karaś
- Laboratory of Epigenetics, Institute of Medical Biology PAS, 93-232 Lodz, Poland; (M.R.); (K.K.)
| | - Mirosław Kwaśniewski
- Centre for Bioinformatics and Data Analysis, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Adam Krętowski
- Clinical Research Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland;
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Zofia Mazerska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biochemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Ester M. Hammond
- Department of Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK; (S.B.B.); (E.M.H.)
| | - Anna Skwarska
- Clinical Research Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland;
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