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van der Kaay DCM, Rochtus A, Binder G, Kurth I, Prawitt D, Netchine I, Johannsson G, Hokken-Koelega ACS, Elbracht M, Eggermann T. Comprehensive genetic testing approaches as the basis for personalized management of growth disturbances: current status and perspectives. Endocr Connect 2022; 11:e220277. [PMID: 36064195 PMCID: PMC9578069 DOI: 10.1530/ec-22-0277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The implementation of high-throughput and deep sequencing methods in routine genetic diagnostics has significantly improved the diagnostic yield in patient cohorts with growth disturbances and becomes increasingly important as the prerequisite of personalized medicine. They provide considerable chances to identify even rare and unexpected situations; nevertheless, we must be aware of their limitations. A simple genetic test in the beginning of a testing cascade might also help to identify the genetic cause of specific growth disorders. However, the clinical picture of genetically caused growth disturbance phenotypes can vary widely, and there is a broad clinical overlap between different growth disturbance disorders. As a consequence, the clinical diagnosis and therewith connected the decision on the appropriate genetic test is often a challenge. In fact, the clinician asking for genetic testing has to weigh different aspects in this decision process, including appropriateness (single gene test, stepwise procedure, comprehensive testing), turnaround time as the basis for rapid intervention, and economic considerations. Therefore, a frequent question in that context is 'what to test when'. In this review, we aim to review genetic testing strategies and their strengths and limitations and to raise awareness for the future implementation of interdisciplinary genome medicine in diagnoses, treatment, and counselling of growth disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anne Rochtus
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Gerhard Binder
- University Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ingo Kurth
- Institute of Human Genetics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Dirk Prawitt
- Center for Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Irène Netchine
- Sorbonne Université, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, INSERM, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Paris, France
| | - Gudmundur Johannsson
- Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Endocrinology at Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anita C S Hokken-Koelega
- Erasmus University Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, Subdivision of Endocrinology, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Miriam Elbracht
- Institute of Human Genetics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thomas Eggermann
- Institute of Human Genetics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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2
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Shujaa-Addin A, Hashish M, Nazmy N, Srour A, Abdalla E. Detection of SHOX gene deletions in Egyptian children with idiopathic short stature using FISH. Meta Gene 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mgene.2020.100697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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3
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Funari MFA, de Barros JS, Santana LS, Lerario AM, Freire BL, Homma TK, Vasques GA, Mendonca BB, Nishi MY, Jorge AAL. Evaluation of SHOX defects in the era of next-generation sequencing. Clin Genet 2019; 96:261-265. [PMID: 31219618 DOI: 10.1111/cge.13587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Short stature homeobox (SHOX) haploinsufficiency is a frequent cause of short stature. Despite advances in sequencing technologies, the identification of SHOX mutations continues to be performed using standard methods, including multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) followed by Sanger sequencing. We designed a targeted panel of genes associated with growth impairment, including SHOX genomic and enhancer regions, to improve the resolution of next-generation sequencing for SHOX analysis. We used two software packages, CONTRA and Nexus Copy Number, in addition to visual analysis to investigate the presence of copy number variants (CNVs). We evaluated 15 patients with previously known SHOX defects, including point mutations, deletions and a duplication, and 77 patients with idiopathic short stature (ISS). The panel was able to confirm all known defects in the validation analysis. During the prospective evaluation, we identified two new partial SHOX deletions (one detected only by visual analysis), including an intragenic deletion not detected by MLPA. Additionally, we were able to determine the breakpoints in four cases. Our results show that the designed panel can be used for the molecular investigation of patients with ISS, and it may even detect CNVs in SHOX and its enhancers, which may be present in a significant fraction of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana F A Funari
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana S de Barros
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas S Santana
- Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/LIM25, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Antonio M Lerario
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/LIM25, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Bruna L Freire
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thais K Homma
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/LIM25, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriela A Vasques
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/LIM25, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Berenice B Mendonca
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mirian Y Nishi
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alexander A L Jorge
- Unidade de Endocrinologia do Desenvolvimento, Laboratório de Hormônios e Genética Molecular/LIM42, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/LIM25, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Ogushi K, Hattori A, Suzuki E, Shima H, Izawa M, Yagasaki H, Horikawa R, Uetake K, Umezawa A, Ishii T, Muroya K, Namba N, Tanaka T, Hirano Y, Yamamoto H, Soneda S, Matsubara K, Kagami M, Miyado M, Fukami M. DNA Methylation Status of SHOX-Flanking CpG Islands in Healthy Individuals and Short Stature Patients with Pseudoautosomal Copy Number Variations. Cytogenet Genome Res 2019; 158:56-62. [PMID: 31158835 DOI: 10.1159/000500468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
SHOX resides in the short arm pseudoautosomal region (PAR1) of the sex chromosomes and escapes X inactivation. SHOX haploinsufficiency underlies idiopathic short stature (ISS) and Leri-Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD). A substantial percentage of cases with SHOX haploinsufficiency arise from pseudoautosomal copy number variations (CNVs) involving putative enhancer regions of SHOX. Our previous study using peripheral blood samples showed that some CpG dinucleotides adjacent to SHOX exon 1 were hypomethylated in a healthy woman and methylated in a woman with gross X chromosomal rearrangements. However, it remains unknown whether submicroscopic pseudoautosomal CNVs cause aberrant DNA methylation of SHOX-flanking CpG islands. In this study, we examined the DNA methylation status of SHOX-flanking CpG islands in 50 healthy individuals and 10 ISS/LWD patients with pseudoautosomal CNVs. In silico analysis detected 3 CpG islands within the 20-kb region from the translation start site of SHOX. Pyrosequencing and bisulfite sequencing of genomic DNA samples revealed that these CpG islands were barely methylated in peripheral blood cells and cultured chondrocytes of healthy individuals, as well as in peripheral blood cells of ISS/LWD patients with pseudoautosomal CNVs. These results, in conjunction with our previous findings, indicate that the DNA methylation status of SHOX-flanking CpG islands can be affected by gross X-chromosomal abnormalities, but not by submicroscopic CNVs in PAR1. Such CNVs likely disturb SHOX expression through DNA methylation-independent mechanisms, which need to be determined in future studies.
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5
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Alharthi AA, El-Hallous EI, Talaat IM, Alghamdi HA, Almalki MI, Gaber A. Screening of SHOX gene sequence variants in Saudi Arabian children with idiopathic short stature. KOREAN JOURNAL OF PEDIATRICS 2017; 60:327-332. [PMID: 29158767 PMCID: PMC5687980 DOI: 10.3345/kjp.2017.60.10.327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Short stature affects approximately 2%–3% of children, representing one of the most frequent disorders for which clinical attention is sought during childhood. Despite assumed genetic heterogeneity, mutations or deletions in the short stature homeobox-containing gene (SHOX) are frequently detected in subjects with short stature. Idiopathic short stature (ISS) refers to patients with short stature for various unknown reasons. The goal of this study was to screen all the exons of SHOX to identify related mutations. Methods We screened all the exons of SHOX for mutations analysis in 105 ISS children patients (57 girls and 48 boys) living in Taif governorate, KSA using a direct DNA sequencing method. Height, arm span, and sitting height were recorded, and subischial leg length was calculated. Results A total of 30 of 105 ISS patients (28%) contained six polymorphic variants in exons 1, 2, 4, and 6. One mutation was found in the DNA domain binding region of exon 4. Three of these polymorphic variants were novel, while the others were reported previously. There were no significant differences in anthropometric measures in ISS patients with and without identifiable polymorphic variants in SHOX. Conclusion In Saudi Arabia ISS patients, rather than SHOX, it is possible that new genes are involved in longitudinal growth. Additional molecular analysis is required to diagnose and understand the etiology of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulla A Alharthi
- Deanship of Scientific Research, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia.,Pediatrics Department, Alhada Armed Forces Hospital, Taif, Saudi Arabia.,Pediatrics Department, College of Medicine, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ehab I El-Hallous
- Deanship of Scientific Research, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia.,Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Arish University, Arish, Egypt
| | - Iman M Talaat
- Pediatrics Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hamed A Alghamdi
- Pediatrics Department, Alhada Armed Forces Hospital, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Ahmed Gaber
- Deanship of Scientific Research, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
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6
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David A, Kun IZ, Nyírő G, Szántó Z, Patócs A. Heterozygous Deletion in Exons 4-5 of SHOX Gene in a Patient Diagnosed as Idiopathic Short Stature. ACTA MEDICA MARISIENSIS 2017. [DOI: 10.1515/amma-2017-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Introduction: Isolated Short Stature Homeobox (SHOX) gene haploinsufficiency can be found in 2-15% of individuals diagnosed with idiopathic short stature determining different skeletal phenotypes.
Case presentation: We present the history of an 11-year-old female patient diagnosed with idiopathic short stature. Clinically, she was moderately disproportionate, with cubitus valgus and palatum ogivale. Her breast development was in Tanner stage 1 at the time of diagnosis. The endocrine diagnostic tests did not reveal any abnormalities except a slightly elevated thyroid stimulating hormone. We have also assessed the bone radiological findings. Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification technique used for the identification of SHOX gene haploinsufficiency showed a heterozygous deletion spanning exons 4-5 of SHOX gene.
Conclusions: This case is determined by deletions in exons 4-5 of SHOX gene and indicates the necessity of screening for SHOX deletions in patients diagnosed with idiopathic short stature, especially in children having increased sitting height-to-height ratio or decreased extremities-to-trunk ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna David
- University of Medicine and Pharmacy , Tirgu Mures , Romania
| | | | - Gábor Nyírő
- Department of Laboratory Medicine , Semmelweis University , Budapest , Hungary
| | | | - Attila Patócs
- Department of Laboratory Medicine , Semmelweis University , Budapest , Hungary
- MTA-SE Molecular Medicine Research Group , Budapest , Hungary
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Auger J, Baptiste A, Benabbad I, Thierry G, Costa JM, Amouyal M, Kottler ML, Leheup B, Touraine R, Schmitt S, Lebrun M, Cormier Daire V, Bonnefont JP, de Roux N, Elie C, Rosilio M. Genotype-Phenotype Relationship in Patients and Relatives with SHOX Region Anomalies in the French Population. Horm Res Paediatr 2017; 86:309-318. [PMID: 27676402 DOI: 10.1159/000448282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of our study was to describe a large population with anomalies involving the SHOX region, responsible for idiopathic short stature and Léri-Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD), and to identify a possible genotype/phenotype correlation. METHODS We performed a retrospective multicenter study on French subjects with a SHOX region anomaly diagnosed by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification or Sanger sequencing. Phenotypes were collected in each of the 7 genetic laboratories practicing this technique for SHOX analysis. RESULTS Among 205 index cases and 100 related cases, 91.3% had LWD. For index cases, median age at evaluation was 11.7 (9.0; 15.9) years and mean height standard deviation score was -2.3 ± 1.1. A deletion of either SHOX or PAR1 or both was found in 74% of patients. Duplications and point mutations/indels affected 8 and 18% of the population, respectively. Genotype-phenotype correlation showed that deletions were more frequently associated with Madelung deformity and mesomelic shortening in girls, as well as with presence of radiologic anomalies, than duplications. CONCLUSIONS Our results highlight genotype-phenotype relationships in the French population with a SHOX defect and provide new information showing that clinical expression is milder in cases of duplication compared to deletions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Auger
- Department of Pediatrics and Medical Genetics, Brabois Hospital, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France
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8
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Identification of 15 novel partial SHOX deletions and 13 partial duplications, and a review of the literature reveals intron 3 to be a hotspot region. J Hum Genet 2016; 62:229-234. [PMID: 27604558 DOI: 10.1038/jhg.2016.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Short stature homeobox gene (SHOX) is located in the pseudoautosomal region 1 of the sex chromosomes. It encodes a transcription factor implicated in the skeletal growth. Point mutations, deletions or duplications of SHOX or its transcriptional regulatory elements are associated with two skeletal dysplasias, Léri-Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD) and Langer mesomelic dysplasia (LMD), as well as in a small proportion of idiopathic short stature (ISS) individuals. We have identified a total of 15 partial SHOX deletions and 13 partial SHOX duplications in LWD, LMD and ISS patients referred for routine SHOX diagnostics during a 10 year period (2004-2014). Subsequently, we characterized these alterations using MLPA (multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification assay), fine-tiling array CGH (comparative genomic hybridation) and breakpoint PCR. Nearly half of the alterations have a distal or proximal breakpoint in intron 3. Evaluation of our data and that in the literature reveals that although partial deletions and duplications only account for a small fraction of SHOX alterations, intron 3 appears to be a breakpoint hotspot, with alterations arising by non-allelic homologous recombination, non-homologous end joining or other complex mechanisms.
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Marchini A, Ogata T, Rappold GA. A Track Record on SHOX: From Basic Research to Complex Models and Therapy. Endocr Rev 2016; 37:417-48. [PMID: 27355317 PMCID: PMC4971310 DOI: 10.1210/er.2016-1036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
SHOX deficiency is the most frequent genetic growth disorder associated with isolated and syndromic forms of short stature. Caused by mutations in the homeobox gene SHOX, its varied clinical manifestations include isolated short stature, Léri-Weill dyschondrosteosis, and Langer mesomelic dysplasia. In addition, SHOX deficiency contributes to the skeletal features in Turner syndrome. Causative SHOX mutations have allowed downstream pathology to be linked to defined molecular lesions. Expression levels of SHOX are tightly regulated, and almost half of the pathogenic mutations have affected enhancers. Clinical severity of SHOX deficiency varies between genders and ranges from normal stature to profound mesomelic skeletal dysplasia. Treatment options for children with SHOX deficiency are available. Two decades of research support the concept of SHOX as a transcription factor that integrates diverse aspects of bone development, growth plate biology, and apoptosis. Due to its absence in mouse, the animal models of choice have become chicken and zebrafish. These models, therefore, together with micromass cultures and primary cell lines, have been used to address SHOX function. Pathway and network analyses have identified interactors, target genes, and regulators. Here, we summarize recent data and give insight into the critical molecular and cellular functions of SHOX in the etiopathogenesis of short stature and limb development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Marchini
- Tumour Virology Division F010 (A.M.), German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Oncology (A.M.), Luxembourg Institute of Health 84, rue Val Fleuri L-1526, Luxembourg; Department of Pediatrics (T.O.), Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu 431-3192, Japan; and Department of Human Molecular Genetics (G.A.R.), Institute of Human Genetics, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tsutomu Ogata
- Tumour Virology Division F010 (A.M.), German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Oncology (A.M.), Luxembourg Institute of Health 84, rue Val Fleuri L-1526, Luxembourg; Department of Pediatrics (T.O.), Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu 431-3192, Japan; and Department of Human Molecular Genetics (G.A.R.), Institute of Human Genetics, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gudrun A Rappold
- Tumour Virology Division F010 (A.M.), German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Oncology (A.M.), Luxembourg Institute of Health 84, rue Val Fleuri L-1526, Luxembourg; Department of Pediatrics (T.O.), Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu 431-3192, Japan; and Department of Human Molecular Genetics (G.A.R.), Institute of Human Genetics, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Delil K, Karabulut HG, Hacıhamdioğlu B, Şıklar Z, Berberoğlu M, Öçal G, Tükün A, Ruhi HI. Investigation of SHOX Gene Mutations in Turkish Patients with Idiopathic Short Stature. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 2016; 8:144-9. [PMID: 26758084 PMCID: PMC5096468 DOI: 10.4274/jcrpe.2307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The frequency of mutations in the short stature homeobox (SHOX) gene in patients with idiopathic short stature (ISS) ranges widely, depending mostly on the mutation detection technique and inclusion criteria. We present phenotypic and genotypic data on 38 Turkish patients with ISS and the distinctive features of 1 patient with a SHOX deletion. METHODS Microsatellite markers (MSMs) DXYS10092 (GA repeats) and DXYS10093 (CT repeats) were used to select patients for fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) analysis and to screen for deletions in the SHOX gene. The FISH analysis was applied to patients homozygous for at least one MSM. A Sanger sequencing analysis was performed on patients with no deletions according to FISH to investigate point mutations in the SHOX gene. RESULTS One patient (2.6%) had a SHOX mutation. CONCLUSION Although the number of cases was limited and the mutation analysis techniques we used cannot detect all mutations, our findings emphasize the importance of the difference in arm span and height when selecting patients for SHOX gene testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenan Delil
- Marmara University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Genetics, İstanbul, Turkey Phone: +90 216 625 45 45-9129/9120 E-mail:
| | | | - Bülent Hacıhamdioğlu
- Süleymaniye Maternity Training and Research Hospital, Clinic of Pediatric Endocrinology, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Zeynep Şıklar
- Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Merih Berberoğlu
- Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Gönül Öçal
- Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ajlan Tükün
- Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Genetics, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Hatice Ilgın Ruhi
- Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Genetics, Ankara, Turkey
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Fukami M, Seki A, Ogata T. SHOX Haploinsufficiency as a Cause of Syndromic and Nonsyndromic Short Stature. Mol Syndromol 2016; 7:3-11. [PMID: 27194967 DOI: 10.1159/000444596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
SHOX in the short arm pseudoautosomal region (PAR1) of sex chromosomes is one of the major growth genes in humans. SHOX haploinsufficiency results in idiopathic short stature and Léri-Weill dyschondrosteosis and is associated with the short stature of patients with Turner syndrome. The SHOX protein likely controls chondrocyte apoptosis by regulating multiple target genes including BNP,Fgfr3, Agc1, and Ctgf. SHOX haploinsufficiency frequently results from deletions and duplications in PAR1 involving SHOX exons and/or the cis-acting enhancers, while exonic point mutations account for a small percentage of cases. The clinical severity of SHOX haploinsufficiency reflects hormonal conditions rather than mutation types. Growth hormone treatment seems to be beneficial for cases with SHOX haploinsufficiency, although the long-term outcomes of this therapy require confirmation. Future challenges in SHOX research include elucidating its precise function in the developing limbs, identifying additional cis-acting enhancers, and determining optimal therapeutic strategies for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maki Fukami
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Atsuhito Seki
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Ogata
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Hamamatsu, Japan; Department of Pediatrics, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
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12
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Malaquias AC, Scalco RC, Fontenele EGP, Costalonga EF, Baldin AD, Braz AF, Funari MFA, Nishi MY, Guerra-Junior G, Mendonca BB, Arnhold IJP, Jorge AAL. The sitting height/height ratio for age in healthy and short individuals and its potential role in selecting short children for SHOX analysis. Horm Res Paediatr 2014; 80:449-56. [PMID: 24296787 DOI: 10.1159/000355411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS To determine the presence of abnormal body proportion, assessed by sitting height/height ratio for age and sex (SH/H SDS) in healthy and short individuals, and to estimate its role in selecting short children for SHOX analysis. METHODS Height, sitting height and weight were evaluated in 1,771 healthy children, 128 children with idiopathic short stature (ISS), 58 individuals with SHOX defects (SHOX-D) and 193 females with Turner syndrome (TS). RESULTS The frequency of abnormal body proportion, defined as SH/H SDS >2, in ISS children was 16.4% (95% CI 10-22%), which was higher than in controls (1.4%, 95% CI 0.8-1.9%, p < 0.001). The SHOX gene was evaluated in all disproportionate ISS children and defects in this gene were observed in 19%. Among patients with SHOX-D, 88% of children (95% CI 75-100%) and 96% of adults had body disproportion. In contrast, SH/H SDS >2 were less common in children (48%, 95% CI 37-59%) and in adults (28%, 95% CI 20-36%) with TS. CONCLUSION Abnormal body proportions were observed in almost all individuals with SHOX-D, 50% of females with TS and 16% of children considered ISS. Defects in SHOX gene were identified in 19% of ISS children with SH/H SDS >2, suggesting that SH/H SDS is a useful tool to select children for undergoing SHOX molecular studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexsandra C Malaquias
- Unidade de Endocrinologia-Genetica, LIM/25, Disciplina de Endocrinologia da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Sao Paulo (FMUSP), Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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13
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Sandoval GTV, Jaimes GC, Barrios MC, Cespedes C, Velasco HM. SHOX gene and conserved noncoding element deletions/duplications in Colombian patients with idiopathic short stature. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2013; 2:95-102. [PMID: 24689071 PMCID: PMC3960050 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Revised: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
SHOX gene mutations or haploinsufficiency cause a wide range of phenotypes such as Leri Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD), Turner syndrome, and disproportionate short stature (DSS). However, this gene has also been found to be mutated in cases of idiopathic short stature (ISS) with a 3–15% frequency. In this study, the multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) technique was employed to determine the frequency of SHOX gene mutations and their conserved noncoding elements (CNE) in Colombian patients with ISS. Patients were referred from different centers around the county. From a sample of 62 patients, 8.1% deletions and insertions in the intragenic regions and in the CNE were found. This result is similar to others published in other countries. Moreover, an isolated case of CNE 9 duplication and a new intron 6b deletion in another patient, associated with ISS, are described. This is one of the first studies of a Latin American population in which deletions/duplications of the SHOX gene and its CNE are examined in patients with ISS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mauricio Coll Barrios
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital De La Misericordia, Universidad Nacional De Colombia Colombia
| | - Camila Cespedes
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital San Ignacio, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Colombia
| | - Harvy Mauricio Velasco
- Institute of Genetics, School of Medicine, Master in Human Genetics, Universidad Nacional de Colombia Colombia
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Stuppia L, Antonucci I, Palka G, Gatta V. Use of the MLPA assay in the molecular diagnosis of gene copy number alterations in human genetic diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:3245-3276. [PMID: 22489151 PMCID: PMC3317712 DOI: 10.3390/ijms13033245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2011] [Revised: 02/28/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA) assay is a recently developed technique able to evidence variations in the copy number of several human genes. Due to this ability, MLPA can be used in the molecular diagnosis of several genetic diseases whose pathogenesis is related to the presence of deletions or duplications of specific genes. Moreover, MLPA assay can also be used in the molecular diagnosis of genetic diseases characterized by the presence of abnormal DNA methylation. Due to the large number of genes that can be analyzed by a single technique, MLPA assay represents the gold standard for molecular analysis of all pathologies derived from the presence of gene copy number variation. In this review, the main applications of the MLPA technique for the molecular diagnosis of human diseases are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liborio Stuppia
- Department of Oral Sciences, Nano and Biotechnologies, “G. d’Annunzio” University, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy; E-Mails: (I.A.); (G.P.); (V.G.)
| | - Ivana Antonucci
- Department of Oral Sciences, Nano and Biotechnologies, “G. d’Annunzio” University, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy; E-Mails: (I.A.); (G.P.); (V.G.)
| | - Giandomenico Palka
- Department of Oral Sciences, Nano and Biotechnologies, “G. d’Annunzio” University, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy; E-Mails: (I.A.); (G.P.); (V.G.)
| | - Valentina Gatta
- Department of Oral Sciences, Nano and Biotechnologies, “G. d’Annunzio” University, Via dei Vestini 31, 66013 Chieti, Italy; E-Mails: (I.A.); (G.P.); (V.G.)
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15
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Oliveira CS, Alves C. The role of the SHOX gene in the pathophysiology of Turner syndrome. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 58:433-42. [PMID: 21925981 DOI: 10.1016/j.endonu.2011.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2011] [Revised: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Turner syndrome (TS) affects 1:2500 live females. It is caused by partial or complete absence of a sex chromosome. Patients with deletions of the distal segment of the short arm of X chromosome (Xp-) including haploinsufficiency of the SHOX (short stature homeobox) have, more often, short stature, skeletal abnormalities and hearing impairments. This article evaluates the current knowledge of the SHOX gene role in TS pathophysiology. Articles were searched from MEDLINE and LILACS databases, in the past 10 years, using the following keywords: Turner syndrome, SHOX gene, haploinsufficiency, short stature and hearing loss. As the inheritance of only one copy of the SHOX gene does not explain most of TS anomalies, more studies are needed to explain them. These studies will also improve understanding how SHOX participates in cartilage and bone growth and will help develop novel therapeutic strategies focused on SHOX-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conceicao S Oliveira
- Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
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16
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Benito-Sanz S, Barroso E, Heine-Suñer D, Hisado-Oliva A, Romanelli V, Rosell J, Aragones A, Caimari M, Argente J, Ross JL, Zinn AR, Gracia R, Lapunzina P, Campos-Barros A, Heath KE. Clinical and molecular evaluation of SHOX/PAR1 duplications in Leri-Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD) and idiopathic short stature (ISS). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96:E404-12. [PMID: 21147883 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2010-1689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Léri-Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD) is a skeletal dysplasia characterized by disproportionate short stature and the Madelung deformity of the forearm. SHOX mutations and pseudoautosomal region 1 deletions encompassing SHOX or its enhancers have been identified in approximately 60% of LWD and approximately 15% of idiopathic short stature (ISS) individuals. Recently SHOX duplications have been described in LWD/ISS but also in individuals with other clinical manifestations, thus questioning their pathogenicity. OBJECTIVE The objective of the study was to investigate the pathogenicity of SHOX duplications in LWD and ISS. DESIGN AND METHODS Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification is routinely used in our unit to analyze for SHOX/pseudoautosomal region 1 copy number changes in LWD/ISS referrals. Quantitative PCR, microsatellite marker, and fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis were undertaken to confirm all identified duplications. RESULTS During the routine analysis of 122 LWD and 613 ISS referrals, a total of four complete and 10 partial SHOX duplications or multiple copy number (n > 3) as well as one duplication of the SHOX 5' flanking region were identified in nine LWD and six ISS cases. Partial SHOX duplications appeared to have a more deleterious effect on skeletal dysplasia and height gain than complete SHOX duplications. Importantly, no increase in SHOX copy number was identified in 340 individuals with normal stature or 104 overgrowth referrals. CONCLUSION MLPA analysis of SHOX/PAR1 led to the identification of partial and complete SHOX duplications or multiple copies associated with LWD or ISS, suggesting that they may represent an additional class of mutations implicated in the molecular etiology of these clinical entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Benito-Sanz
- Institute of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ, and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28046 Madrid, Spain
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