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Méar L, Herr M, Fauconnier A, Pineau C, Vialard F. Polymorphisms and endometriosis: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Hum Reprod Update 2020; 26:73-102. [PMID: 31821471 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmz034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endometriosis is an estrogen-dependent gynecological disorder that affects at least 10% of women of reproductive age. It may lead to infertility and non-specific symptoms such as chronic pelvic pain. Endometriosis screening and diagnosis are difficult and time-consuming. Late diagnosis (with a delay ranging from 3.3 to 10.7 years) is a major problem and may contribute to disease progression and a worse response to treatment once initiated. Efficient screening tests might reduce this diagnostic delay. As endometriosis is presumed to be a complex disease with several genetic and non-genetic pathogenic factors, many researchers have sought to identify polymorphisms that predispose to this condition. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the most regularly reported polymorphisms in order to identify those that might predispose to endometriosis and might thus be of value in screening. SEARCH METHODS The MEDLINE database was searched for English-language publications on DNA polymorphisms in endometriosis, with no date restriction. The PubTator text mining tool was used to extract gene names from the selected publications' abstracts. We only selected polymorphisms reported by at least three studies, having applied strict inclusion and exclusion criteria to their control populations. No stratification based on ethnicity was performed. All steps were carried out according to PRISMA guidelines. OUTCOMES The initial selection of 395 publications cited 242 different genes. Sixty-two genes (corresponding to 265 different polymorphisms) were cited at least in three publications. After the application of our other selection criteria (an original case-control study of endometriosis, a reported association between endometriosis and at least one polymorphism, data on women of reproductive age and a diagnosis of endometriosis in the cases established by surgery and/or MRI and confirmed by histology), 28 polymorphisms were eligible for meta-analysis. Only five of the 28 polymorphisms were found to be significantly associated with endometriosis: interferon gamma (IFNG) (CA) repeat, glutathione S-transferase mu 1 (GSTM1) null genotype, glutathione S-transferase pi 1 (GSTP1) rs1695 and wingless-type MMTV integration site family member 4 (WNT4) rs16826658 and rs2235529. Six others showed a significant trend towards an association: progesterone receptor (PGR) PROGINS, interCellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1) rs1799969, aryl-hydrocarbon receptor repressor (AHRR) rs2292596, cytochrome family 17 subfamily A polypeptide 1 (CYP17A1) rs743572, CYP2C19 rs4244285 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) rs1801282), and 12 showed a significant trend towards the lack of an association: tumor necrosis factor (TNF) rs1799964, interleukin 6 (IL6) rs1800796, transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFB1) rs1800469, estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) rs2234693, PGR rs10895068, FSH receptor (FSHR) rs6166, ICAM1 rs5498, CYP1A1 rs4646903, CYP19A1 rs10046, tumor protein 53 (TP53) rs1042522, X-ray repair complementing defective repair in Chinese hamster cells 1 (XRCC1) rs25487 and serpin peptidase inhibitor clade E member 1 (SERPINE1) rs1799889; however, for the 18 polymorphisms identified in the latter two groups, further studies of the potential association with the endometriosis risk are needed. The remaining five of the 28 polymorphisms were not associated with endometriosis: glutathione S-transferase theta 1 (GSTT1) null genotype, vascular endothelial growth factor alpha (VEGFA) rs699947, rs833061, rs2010963 and rs3025039. WIDER IMPLICATIONS By carefully taking account of how the control populations were defined, we identified polymorphisms that might be candidates for use in endometriosis screening and polymorphisms not associated with endometriosis. This might constitute the first step towards identifying polymorphism combinations that predispose to endometriosis (IFNG (CA) repeat, GSTM1 null genotype, GSTP1 rs1695, WNT4 rs16826658 and WNT4 rs2235529) in a large cohort of patients with well-defined inclusion criteria. In turn, these results might improve the diagnosis of endometriosis in primary care. Lastly, our present findings may enable a better understanding of endometriosis and improve the management of patients with this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loren Méar
- EA7404-GIG, UFR des Sciences de la Santé Simone Veil, UVSQ, F-78180 Montigny le Bretonneux, France.,Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset, UMR_S 1085, F-35042 Rennes cedex, France.,Protim, Univ Rennes, F-35042 Rennes cedex, France
| | - Marie Herr
- INSERM, U1168, VIMA: Aging and Chronic Diseases, Epidemiological and Public Health Approaches, F-94807 Villejuif, France.,UMR-S 1168, UFR des Sciences de la Santé Simone Veil, UVSQ, F-78180 Montigny le Bretonneux, France.,Département Hospitalier d'Epidémiologie et Santé Publique, Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris Ile-de-France Ouest, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, F-75000 Paris, France
| | - Arnaud Fauconnier
- EA7325-RISQ, UFR des Sciences de la Santé Simone Veil, UVSQ, F-78180 Montigny le Bretonneux, France.,Department of Gyneacology and Obstetrics, CHI de Poissy St Germain en Laye, F-78303 Poissy, France
| | - Charles Pineau
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset, UMR_S 1085, F-35042 Rennes cedex, France.,Protim, Univ Rennes, F-35042 Rennes cedex, France
| | - François Vialard
- EA7404-GIG, UFR des Sciences de la Santé Simone Veil, UVSQ, F-78180 Montigny le Bretonneux, France.,Genetics Federation, CHI de Poissy St Germain en Laye, F-78303 Poissy, France
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2
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Vassilopoulou L, Matalliotakis M, Zervou MI, Matalliotaki C, Krithinakis K, Matalliotakis I, Spandidos DA, Goulielmos GN. Defining the genetic profile of endometriosis. Exp Ther Med 2019; 17:3267-3281. [PMID: 30988702 PMCID: PMC6447774 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2019.7346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Endometriosis is a pathological condition which has been extensively studied, since its pathophysiology stems from a broad spectrum of environmental influences and genetic factors. Familial studies aim at defining inheritance trends, while linkage analysis studies focus on the identification of genetic sites related to endometriosis susceptibility. Genetic association studies take into account candidate genes and single nucleotide polymorphisms, and hence target at unraveling the association between disease severity and genetic variation. The common goal of various types of studies is, through genetic mapping methods, the timely identification of therapeutic strategies for disease symptoms, including pelvic pain and infertility, as well as efficient counselling. While genome-wide association studies (GWAS) play a primary role in depicting genetic contributions to disease development, they entail a certain bias as regards the case-control nature of their design and the reproducibility of the results. Nevertheless, genetic-oriented studies and the implementation of the results through clinical tests, hold a considerable advantage in proper disease management. In this review article, we present information about gene-gene and gene-environment interactions involved in endometriosis and discuss the effectiveness of GWAS in identitying novel potential therapeutic targets in an attempt to develop novel therapeutic strategies for a better management and treatment of patients with endometriosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loukia Vassilopoulou
- Laboratory of Forensic Sciences and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion 71003, Greece
| | - Michail Matalliotakis
- Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Venizeleio and Pananio General Hospital of Heraklion, Heraklion 71409, Greece
| | - Maria I Zervou
- Section of Molecular Pathology and Human Genetics, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion 71003, Greece
| | - Charoula Matalliotaki
- Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Venizeleio and Pananio General Hospital of Heraklion, Heraklion 71409, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Krithinakis
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Hospital of Heraklion, Heraklion 71500, Greece
| | - Ioannis Matalliotakis
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Venizeleio and Pananio General Hospital of Heraklion, Heraklion 71409, Greece
| | - Demetrios A Spandidos
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion 71003, Greece
| | - George N Goulielmos
- Section of Molecular Pathology and Human Genetics, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion 71003, Greece
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3
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Hou X, Rooklin D, Yang D, Liang X, Li K, Lu J, Wang C, Xiao P, Zhang Y, Sun JP, Fang H. Computational Strategy for Bound State Structure Prediction in Structure-Based Virtual Screening: A Case Study of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Receptor Type O Inhibitors. J Chem Inf Model 2018; 58:2331-2342. [PMID: 30299094 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.8b00548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Accurate protein structure in the ligand-bound state is a prerequisite for successful structure-based virtual screening (SBVS). Therefore, applications of SBVS against targets for which only an apo structure is available may be severely limited. To address this constraint, we developed a computational strategy to explore the ligand-bound state of a target protein, by combined use of molecular dynamics simulation, MM/GBSA binding energy calculation, and fragment-centric topographical mapping. Our computational strategy is validated against low-molecular weight protein tyrosine phosphatase (LMW-PTP) and then successfully employed in the SBVS against protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type O (PTPRO), a potential therapeutic target for various diseases. The most potent hit compound GP03 showed an IC50 value of 2.89 μM for PTPRO and possessed a certain degree of selectivity toward other protein phosphatases. Importantly, we also found that neglecting the ligand energy penalty upon binding partially accounts for the false positive SBVS hits. The preliminary structure-activity relationships of GP03 analogs are also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuben Hou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy , Shandong University , Jinan , Shandong 250012 , China.,Department of Chemistry , New York University , New York , New York 10003 , United States
| | - David Rooklin
- Department of Chemistry , New York University , New York , New York 10003 , United States
| | - Duxiao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine , Shandong University , Jinan , Shandong 250012 , China
| | - Xiao Liang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy , Shandong University , Jinan , Shandong 250012 , China
| | - Kangshuai Li
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine , Shandong University , Jinan , Shandong 250012 , China
| | - Jianing Lu
- Department of Chemistry , New York University , New York , New York 10003 , United States
| | - Cheng Wang
- Department of Chemistry , New York University , New York , New York 10003 , United States
| | - Peng Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine , Shandong University , Jinan , Shandong 250012 , China
| | - Yingkai Zhang
- Department of Chemistry , New York University , New York , New York 10003 , United States.,NYU-ECNU Center for Computational Chemistry , New York University-Shanghai , Shanghai 200122 , China
| | - Jin-Peng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine , Shandong University , Jinan , Shandong 250012 , China
| | - Hao Fang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy , Shandong University , Jinan , Shandong 250012 , China
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4
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Pabalan N, Jarjanazi H, Christofolini DM, Bianco B, Barbosa CP. Association of the protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor 22 polymorphism (PTPN22) with endometriosis: a meta-analysis. EINSTEIN-SAO PAULO 2017; 15:105-111. [PMID: 28444099 PMCID: PMC5433317 DOI: 10.1590/s1679-45082017rw3827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To evaluate PTPN22 C1858T polymorphism and the risk of endometriosis. Methods A meta-analysis of 10 published case-control studies (from four articles), with a total sample of 971 cases and 1,181 controls, was performed. We estimated risk (odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals) of endometriosis associations with the C1858T polymorphism. Results A significant increased risk in all genetic models of the variant T allele with endometriosis (odds ratio: 3.14-5.55; p<0.00001-0.002) was found. The analysis without the study whose controls deviated from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium exacerbated these effects in the homozygous and recessive models (odds ratio: 7.19-9.45; p<0.00001-0.0002). In the Italian subgroup, a significant risk association was found in the homozygous and recessive models (odds ratio: 8.72-11.12; p=0.002). Conclusion The associations observed between PTPN22 (C1858T) and the risk of endometriosis suggest this polymorphism might be a useful susceptibility marker for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hamdi Jarjanazi
- Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change, Ontario, ON, Canada
| | | | - Bianca Bianco
- Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil
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Abstract
Endometriosis is a heritable complex disorder that is influenced by multiple genetic and environmental factors. Identification of these genetic factors will aid a better understanding of the underlying biology of the disease. In this article, we describe different methods of studying genetic variation of endometriosis, summarize results from genetic studies performed to date and provide recommendations for future studies to uncover additional factors contributing to the heritable component of endometriosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nilufer Rahmioglu
- Wellcome Trust Center for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Grant W Montgomery
- Molecular Epidemiology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD 4029, Australia
| | - Krina T Zondervan
- Wellcome Trust Center for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK.,Nuffield Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
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6
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Hou X, Li K, Yu X, Sun JP, Fang H. Protein Flexibility in Docking-Based Virtual Screening: Discovery of Novel Lymphoid-Specific Tyrosine Phosphatase Inhibitors Using Multiple Crystal Structures. J Chem Inf Model 2015; 55:1973-83. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.5b00344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xuben Hou
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology
of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy, ‡Department of Physiology, School
of Medicine, and §Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education
and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Kangshuai Li
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology
of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy, ‡Department of Physiology, School
of Medicine, and §Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education
and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Xiao Yu
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology
of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy, ‡Department of Physiology, School
of Medicine, and §Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education
and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Jin-peng Sun
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology
of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy, ‡Department of Physiology, School
of Medicine, and §Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education
and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Hao Fang
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology
of Natural Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy, ‡Department of Physiology, School
of Medicine, and §Key Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education
and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
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7
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8
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Gloria-Bottini F, Ammendola M, Saccucci P, Neri A, Magrini A, Bottini E. The effect of ACP1, ADA6 and PTPN22 genetic polymorphisms on the association between p53 codon 72 polymorphism and endometriosis. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00404-015-3827-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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9
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TP53 Arg72Pro polymorphism (rs1042522) and risk of endometriosis among Asian and Caucasian populations. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2015; 189:73-8. [PMID: 25889195 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2015.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate the association between TP53 Arg72Pro polymorphism (rs1042522) and risk of endometriosis. Studies were retrieved from Pubmed, Embase and HuGENet, and four models [dominant (AA+AG vs. GG), recessive (AA vs. AG+GG), co-dominant (AA vs. AG, AA vs. GG) and allele analysis (A vs. G), combined with odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI)], were applied to evaluate this association. Fourteen eligible studies from eight countries were included. The pooled analysis identified a significant association between TP53 Arg72Pro polymorphism (rs1042522) and risk of endometriosis [dominant: OR 0.746, 95% CI 0.585-0.952, I(2)=59%; recessive: OR 0.650, 95% CI 0.510-0.829, I(2)=73%; co-dominant (GG vs. GC): OR 0.676, 95% CI 0.637-0.851, I(2)=67%; co-dominant (GG vs. CC): OR 0.564, 95% CI 0.395-0.806, I(2)=74%; allele analysis: OR 0.762, 95% CI 0.654-0.888, I(2)=71%]. In the subgroup analysis, the same positive associations were found among Asians. After removing studies that did not satisfy Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, significant correlations were confirmed in both the pooled analysis and the Asian subgroup. Three bioinformatic methods (TagSNP calculations, functional prediction and linkage disequilibrium analysis) were used to determine the importance of TP53 Arg72Pro polymorphism (rs1042522), and suggested that this locus may be equally important regardless of ethnicity. In conclusion, TP53 Arg72Pro polymorphism (rs1042522) was positively associated with risk of endometriosis, particularly among Asians. However, its potential role in Caucasians should not be ignored.
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10
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Hou X, Li R, Li K, Yu X, Sun JP, Fang H. Fast Identification of Novel Lymphoid Tyrosine Phosphatase Inhibitors Using Target–Ligand Interaction-Based Virtual Screening. J Med Chem 2014; 57:9309-22. [DOI: 10.1021/jm500692u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xuben Hou
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Natural
Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Rong Li
- Key
Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Kangshuai Li
- Department
of Physiology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Xiao Yu
- Department
of Physiology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Jin-Peng Sun
- Key
Laboratory Experimental Teratology of the Ministry of Education and
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Hao Fang
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Natural
Products (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
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Song GG, Lee YH. A Meta-analysis of the Association between p53 Codon 72 Polymorphism and Susceptibility to Endometriosis. Immunol Invest 2014; 43:595-605. [DOI: 10.3109/08820139.2013.833623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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12
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Gloria-Bottini F, Saccucci P, Banci M, Nardi P, Scognamiglio M, Pellegrino A, Bottini E, Chiariello L. Effect of genetic factors on the association between coronary artery disease and PTPN22 polymorphism. World J Cardiol 2014; 6:376-380. [PMID: 24976909 PMCID: PMC4072827 DOI: 10.4330/wjc.v6.i6.376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
PTPN22 has been previously found associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). In the present note we have studied the effect of p53 codon 72, acid phosphatse locus 1 (ACP1) and adenosine deaminase (ADA) genetic polymorphism on the strength of association between PTPN22 and CAD. We have studied 133 non diabetic subjects with CAD, 122 non diabetic cardiovascular patients without CAD and 269 healthy blood donors. Informed written consent was obtained from all subjects and the study was approved by the Ethical Committee. A high significant association between PTPN22 and CAD is observed in carriers of *A allele of ACP1 with a higher proportion of *T allele carriers in non diabetic subjects with CAD as compared to controls and to non diabetic subjects with cardiovascular disease without CAD. A similar pattern is observed in carriers of *Pro allele of p53 codon 72 with a higher proportion of *T allele carriers in non diabetic subjects with CAD as compared to other groups. A highly significant association between PTPN22 and CAD is observed in carriers of ADA2 *2 allele with higher proportion of *T allele carriers in non diabetic subjects with CAD as compared to other group. There is a high significant correlation between the number of factors that contributes to increase the strength of association between PTPN22 *T and CAD and the proportion of *T carriers in CAD. ACP1, p53 codon 72 and ADA are involved in immune reaction and give an important additive contribution to the strength of association between PTPN22 and CAD. This study stresses the importance of the simultaneous analysis of multiple genes functionally related to a specific disease: the approach may give important hints to understand multifactorial disorders.
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