Phosphodiesterase type 1, calcitonin gene-related peptide and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide are involved in the control of human vaginal arterial vessels

An Advanced Method for the Immunohistochemical Detection of Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS) in the Female Genital Tract

The expression of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in male and female urogenital tissues has been investigated by using conventional light microscopical immunoperoxidase staining. We present an improved immunohistochemical method for the specific and simultaneous detection of endothelial and neuronal NOS (eNOS/nNOS) in vaginal tissue. Specific antibodies have been used in combination with the tyramide signal amplification method. We found a subepithelial meshwork of varicose nerve fibers. A subpopulation of fibers presented immunoreactivity specific for nNOS. Epithelial cells also showed cytoplasmatic labeling for nNOS. Arteries presenting signals for eNOS in their endothelial layer were found in close proximity to nNOS-positive nerve fibers.

Recommended standardized terminology of the anterior female pelvis based on a structured medical literature review

BACKGROUND

The use of imprecise and inaccurate terms leads to confusion amongst anatomists and medical professionals.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to create recommended standardized terminology to describe anatomic structures of the anterior female pelvis based on a structured review of published literature and selected text books.

STUDY DESIGN

We searched MEDLINE from its inception until May 2, 2016, using 11 medical subject heading terms to identify studies reporting on anterior female pelvic anatomy; any study type published in English was accepted. Nine textbooks were also included. We screened 12,264 abstracts, identifying 200 eligible studies along with 13 textbook chapters from which we extracted all pertinent anatomic terms.

RESULTS

In all, 67 unique structures in the anterior female pelvis were identified. A total of 59 of these have been previously recognized with accepted terms in Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard on anatomical terminology. We also identified and propose the adoption of 4 anatomic regional terms (lateral vaginal wall, pelvic sidewall, pelvic bones, and anterior compartment), and 2 structural terms not included in Terminologia Anatomica (vaginal sulcus and levator hiatus). In addition, we identified 2 controversial terms (pubourethral ligament and Grafenberg spot) that require additional research and consensus from the greater medical and scientific community prior to adoption or rejection of these terms.

CONCLUSION

We propose standardized terminology that should be used when discussing anatomic structures in the anterior female pelvis to help improve communication among researchers, clinicians, and surgeons.

Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide Induces HIV-1 Proteasomal Degradation in Mucosal Langerhans Cells

The neuroimmune dialogue between peripheral neurons and Langerhans cells (LCs) within mucosal epithelia protects against incoming pathogens. LCs rapidly internalize human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) upon its sexual transmission and then trans-infect CD4⁺ T cells. We recently found that the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), secreted mucosally from peripheral neurons, inhibits LC-mediated HIV-1 trans-infection. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of CGRP-induced inhibition, focusing on HIV-1 degradation in LCs and its interplay with trans-infection. We first show that HIV-1 degradation occurs in endolysosomes in untreated LCs, and functionally blocking such degradation with lysosomotropic agents results in increased trans-infection. We demonstrate that CGRP acts via its cognate receptor and at a viral postentry step to induce faster HIV-1 degradation, but without affecting the kinetics of endolysosomal degradation. We reveal that unexpectedly, CGRP shifts HIV-1 degradation from endolysosomes toward the proteasome, providing the first evidence for functional HIV-1 proteasomal degradation in LCs. Such efficient proteasomal degradation significantly inhibits the first phase of trans-infection, and proteasomal, but not endolysosomal, inhibitors abrogate CGRP-induced inhibition. Together, our results establish that CGRP controls the HIV-1 degradation mode in LCs. The presence of endogenous CGRP within innervated mucosal tissues, especially during the sexual response, to which CGRP contributes, suggests that HIV-1 proteasomal degradation predominates in vivo Hence, proteasomal, rather than endolysosomal, HIV-1 degradation in LCs should be enhanced clinically to effectively restrict HIV-1 trans-infection.IMPORTANCE During sexual transmission, HIV-1 is internalized and degraded in LCs, the resident antigen-presenting cells in mucosal epithelia. Yet during trans-infection, infectious virions escaping degradation are transferred to CD4⁺ T cells, the principal HIV-1 targets. We previously found that the neuroimmune dialogue between LCs and peripheral neurons, innervating mucosal epithelia, significantly inhibits trans-infection via the action of the secreted neuropeptide CGRP on LCs. In this study, we investigated whether CGRP-induced inhibition of trans-infection is linked to CGRP-controlled HIV-1 degradation in LCs. We show that in untreated LCs, HIV-1 is functionally degraded in endolysosomes. In sharp contrast, we reveal that in CGRP-treated LCs, HIV-1 is diverted toward and degraded via another cytosolic protein degradative pathway, namely, the proteasome. These results establish that CGRP regulates HIV-1 degradation in LCs. As CGRP contributes to the sexual response and present within mucosal epithelia, HIV-1 proteasomal degradation in LCs might predominate in vivo and should be enhanced clinically.